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AN
INTERPRETATION
OF ISLAM

An Interpretation of Islam
By Laura Veccia Vaglieri

Published by:
Ahmadiyya Muslim Association UK - The London Mosque
16 Gressenhall Road, London, SW18 5QL

First edition: Printed in USA in 1957 by McGregor &
Werner, Inc, Washington, D.C..

Second edition: Printed in UK in 2002 by Raqeem Press,
Tilford, Surrey.

Third edition: Printed in UK in 2012 by Raqeem Press,
Tilford, Surrey.

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form
without prior written permission from the publisher Islam
International Publications Ltd, except for the quotation of
brief passages in criticism.

ISBN: 978-0-85525-996-9

Cover design by: Yusuf Ginai

An Interpretation of
ISLAM

Laura Veccia Vaglieri

Translated from Italian by:
Dr. Aldo Caselli, Haverford College, Pennsylvania
With a Foreword by:

Sir Muhammad Zafrulla Khan
Judge, International Court of Justice

THE AMERICAN FAZL MOSQUE
Washington 8, D. C.

PUBLISHERS’ NOTE

The publishers are happy to acknowledge the indebtedness
which they and the students of Islam owe to Dr. Laura Veccia
Vaglieri, Professor of Arabic and History of Muslim Civilization at
the University of Naples, Italy, far writing such a concise and
objective study of the faith of Islam.

We are equally indebted to Dr. Aldo Caselli who took upon
himself the arduous and difficult task of translating this book from
Italian. Dr. Caselli received his Ph. D. from the School of
Economics of the University of Naples. He spent several years in
the Middle East widely travelling and studying the Arab people.
Many of his articles on Islamic culture and institutions have
appeared in the Italian press. Dr. Caselli arrived in the United States
in 1938. At present he is on the staff of Haverford College,
Haverford, Pennsylvania. It is a pleasure to have the first English
translation of this important work done by such an eminently
qualified scholar.

Our thanks are also due to Sir Muhammad Zafrulla Khan,
Judge of the International Court of Justice, for writing a very
valuable Foreword for the English edition of this work.

This book was originally published under the title of

Apologia dell’ Islamismo by A. F. Formiggini, Rome, Italy, in
1925.

KHALIL AHMAD NASIR

The American Faz] Mosque
Washington 8, D.C.

Contents
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by Sir Muhammad Zafrulla Khan,
Judge of the International Court of Justice

Chapter I
The Rapid Spread of Islam. ........s.cn0.s.ace0eoss.

Chapter II

The Simplicity of Islamic Dogma...................
Chapter III

The Meaning of Islamic Rites ....................045
Chapter IV

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Chapter V

Islamic Rule and Civilization...................0006
Chapter VI

The Significance of Mysticism in Islam............
Chapter VII

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Foreword

The close of the sixth and the opening of the seventh century of
the Christian era was, perhaps, the darkest period of the Dark Ages.
Religion, morals, culture, philosophy and learning were all at a low
ebb. Only a flicker, here and there, seemed to emphasize the
universal gloom.

Over the Arabian Peninsula, the darkness was at its deepest.
The absence of any form of organized government left life and
property insecure, except insofar as family and tribal pacts and
feuds might afford respite or maintain a rough balance. The
dwellers of the peninsula were ignorant alike of the arts of peace
and the rules of war. Rapine and brutality were the order of the day,
restrained only by notions of a rude chivalry and hospitality and the
urge of self-preservation against retributive action by those who
could muster a superior force.

Neither seer nor philosopher could have opined that healing
and salvation would come out of Arabia.

Yet that is what came to pass. A solitary voice was, under
Divine Command, raised in Mecca, calling men to the worship of
One God and proclaiming that through responding to this call
would mankind achieve true dignity, honour, prosperity and hap-
piness both here and hereafter. That voice was the voice of
Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam.

That voice was truly a voice in the wilderness. It was received
with laughter, scorn and ridicule. Only here and there one lowly and
humble of heart responded with a courageous “Aye”. As slowly,
very slowly, “Aye” began to be added to “Aye”, the laughter and
ridicule changed into persecution; bitter, cruel, savage and
sustained. The sole reason for this savage and prolonged
persecution was the affirmation of faith in and the worship of One
God on the part of the Muslims.

If faith in God was to be preserved and fostered, escape from
Mecca was the only way. Some left, but were followed and their
return was demanded from the sovereign of the territory across the
narrow sea who had given them shelter. After hearing both sides he
rejected the demand.

Thirteen years after his ministry had commenced, Muhammad
himself received the Divine Command to leave Mecca. He slipped
out in the company of a single faithful follower, Abu Bakr, at a time
when his house was surrounded by a band of his enemies who had
resolved to put a violent end to him that night. When his flight was
discovered, the Quraysh of Mecca organized a pursuit but failed to
discover the place where he had hidden himself along with his
companion. The Quraysh then proclaimed a reward of one hundred

camels for anyone who would produce Muhammad before them,
dead or alive.

Eventually the Prophet and Abu Bakr made their way to
Medina. Here the Prophet was not only joyfully received by the
small party of Muslims, but was, by agreement between the dif-
ferent sections of the people of Medina, invited to take on, in
addition to his functions as Prophet, the duties and responsibilities
of chief executive of Medina. He thus became also the Head of a
State. On learning this the Quraysh, who had already set a price
upon his head, began to organize the Arab tribes in a series of
alliances designed to bring about his destruction and that of his

companions and of those who might dare to lend him their aid or
support. A state of war was thus ushered in, in pursuit of a
relentless purpose.

To the Prophet’s many and various responsibilities and
anxieties was now added the responsibility for the defence of
Medina and the protection of the increasing number of Muslims
scattered in all parts of the peninsula. He, on his part, also
proceeded to win the good will of the tribes and to make treaties
with such of them as could be persuaded to make common cause
with him in the promotion of law and order and the maintenance of
peace. The foundations were thus laid of the pax Islamica.

In the new roles thus imposed upon the Prophet, he acquitted
himself with the highest credit. He proved himself a wise leader, a
farsighted statesman and a courageous but humane and merciful
commander. He and his followers had to contend against heavy
odds and had to endure severe privations and sufferings, but the
first stage of the struggle, which at the start had appeared utterly
hopeless, was carried to a triumphant consummation when Mecca,
without any bloodshed, opened its gates to the erstwhile fugitive
and his companions within eight years of his flight therefrom. Then
was witnessed the spectacle of the most magnanimous and generous
act of forgiveness of which history furnishes a record.

We thus observe that not only Islam lays down correct prin-
ciples for the beneficent regulation of all aspects of human relations
and conduct, the Prophet of Islam was, through the Divine Mercy,
also vouchsafed the opportunity to illustrate in his own life their
successful application. Islam permits the taking up of arms only in
defence and expressly forbids aggression. The Quran designates
war as a conflagration which must be put out as speedily as
possible, as often as it breaks out. Islam condemns and forbids all
brutal and savage practices and customs of war and has instituted a
set of rules designed to render even war humane.

The Muslims received divine permission to take up arms in
defence of freedom of conscience and to establish peace and order.
Their success against overwhelming odds aroused jealousy and
apprehension, first among the Arab tribes and later on the part of
the Byzantine and Iranian empires. These two great Powers could
not reconcile themselves to the sudden emergence of the united,
progressive and dynamic republic of Islam. It constituted a
challenge to all the values upheld by these two empires. Islam made
a strong appeal to the oppressed and exploited peoples that were
subject to their authority. The inevitable followed. A conflict
ensued which opened the way for the spread of Islam to the
confines of the then known world.

Within an astonishingly brief period, over vast areas darkness
and confusion were dispelled, order was established, all manner of
beneficent institutions sprang into life, a high moral order was set
up and the blessings of knowledge, learning and science began to
be widely diffused. The world experienced an astounding
revolution. This was no freak spectacle; no sudden flare up
followed by an even more sudden collapse. This was a phenomenon
characterized by strength, beneficence and endurance. It fulfilled to
a pre-eminent degree the needs and yearnings of the human body,
intellect and soul. It changed the course of human history. It flung
wide open the gates of progress in all directions. Its impact
continues to be felt today, perhaps more widely and strongly than at
any time since the first three or four centuries of the Muslim era.

What is the secret of this strength and endurance? This is the
question to which Dr. Vaglieri supplies an answer in her very
valuable book. She brings to her task wide scholarship and deep
sincerity, sympathy and understanding. These qualities have led her
unerringly to the true answer and she has not hesitated to state it in
clear terms. Her book is concise but covers a wide field. Within a
brief compass, Professor Vaglieri has succeeded in compressing a
penetrating survey of the principal aspects of Islam. Through the

presentation of Islam with such understanding Professor Vaglieri
has not only laid the West under a heavy debt of gratitude, she has
also won the affectionate admiration of the Muslim world.

This does not mean that on points of detail the author’s thesis
will find unanimous support among all sections of Muslims. Such
differences of approach and appraisal, however, do not detract from
the value of her great contribution.

While presenting her appreciation of the teachings of Islam and
the life and character of the Prophet of Islam, Dr. Vaglieri has not
failed to lay her finger boldly upon one of the principal causes of
the decline of the Muslims and the disintegration of Muslim society
in modern times. She has also indicated the remedy:

It is to the Holy Book which has never been
altered at the hands either of its friends or its
enemies, by either the learned or the unlettered, the
book that time does not wear out but which remains
just as it was revealed by God to the rough and
simple Apostle, the last of all law-bearing
Prophets—it is to this pure source that the Muslims
will return. As they drink directly from this Holy
Book, they will not fail to be re-invigorated.

How could it be otherwise? The Quran is the direct verbal
revelation vouchsafed by God to Muhammad. It is literally the
Word of God. Like the universe, also the creation of God, it
possesses the quality of continuous life. It yields healthy and life-
sustaining fruit in all ages.

Professor Vaglieri has the distinction of being alone among
Western scholars in prescribing this remedy for the manifold ills
that have befallen the Muslims in recent times. She is logically and
inevitably led to this conclusion by her main thesis. Nonetheless it

is a further proof of her profound insight into the life-giving
qualities of the ever-fresh spring of all-embracing guidance which
is the Quran. The Quran itself offers the same diagnosis and
prescribes the same remedy. For instance, it says: (On that day) the
Messenger will say, ‘My Lord, my people indeed treated this Quran
as a thing discarded’. *

The neglect of the guidance contained in the Quran is the
cause: recourse to that guidance is the remedy.

The credit for making this most valuable little work available
in English belongs to Dr. Aldo Caselli. Translation is never an easy
task. When the sources of the subject matter are contained in an
unfamiliar language and a work based on these sources has to be
translated into a third language, the difficulties of translation are
multiplied manifold. The transition from idiom to idiom alone
presents a formidable problem. In the present case the original
work, dealing as it does in compressed form with the gravest and
most delicate topics, demands in the translation a certain amount of
explanatory expansion while retaining strict fidelity to the text. Dr.
Caselli has achieved this combination with excellent effect.

Responsible statesmen all over the world are diligently ex-
ploring means of promoting international understanding and good
will. The most important problem they are confronted with is the
so-called ideological conflict. For approximately four hundred
million people, spread from Morocco to China and the Philippines,
Islamic values form the basis of an ideology which they are anxious

1
The Holy Quran, Surah 25, Verse 31.

All references of the Holy Quran, heretofore, have been given only by the number of the
Surah (chapter) and the verses. The text of the English translation used throughout this book
is the one published under the title, The Holy Quran: Arabic Text and English Translation,
(Washington D. C., The American Fazl Mosque, 1955).

to promote and foster. They are convinced that these values furnish
the most beneficent standards for healthy, prosperous and
progressive life in all spheres.

Large sections of these people have just emerged or are in the
process of emerging from a state of political dependence in which
they have been subject to the control and domination of one or
other of the European Colonial Powers. They are now in a position
to review the situation, domestic and international, in which they
find themselves and to carry out the needed adjustments. With
international peace so precariously balanced between the Great
Powers, the contribution which the Muslim peoples may be in a
position to make towards maintaining and strengthening it, may
prove to be decisive. Each day that passes emphasizes the
increasing importance of this contribution and consequently the
vital need of sympathetic understanding and appreciation of the
source which, in the last resort, will mould their thinking, their
policies and their actions.

Western scholars and writers have in recent years shown an
increasing awareness of the need of sympathy, understanding and
appreciation in their approach towards Islam. But prejudices which
have been fostered during long centuries will take time to be
overcome. Sustained and strenuous effort is needed to substitute in
their place an attitude of objective appreciation.

Another difficulty is that the West bas been only too prone to
attribute the faults and weaknesses of the Muslims of today to the
teachings and influence of Islam, rather than to the ignorance of the
mass of the Muslims of the true Islamic values and their neglect of
them.

In all these respects, Professor Vaglieri’s admirable little
volume fills an urgent need. Muslims and non-Muslims alike can
derive great benefit from its perusal. Readers of English will also

appreciate Dr. Caselli’s labour of love in making the text available
in English.

An Interpretation of Islam should be widely read. It will prove
of the utmost value in promoting friendly understanding between
the Muslims and the West, and thus strengthening international
peace.

Islam is universal in its appeal. The values taught by Islam will
be joyfully acclaimed in the West, once they are properly

understood. Professor Vaglieri’s work will be welcomed as one of
the great pioneers in opening the way towards that consummation.

ZAFRULLA KHAN

The Hague:

February 25, 1957

CHAPTER I

The Rapid Spread of Islam

Islam, like a spring of pure and refined water, developed
among barbarian people in a desolate and arid land far from the
crossroads of civilization and human thought. So abundant was its
volume that the spring fast became a creek, then a river, and finally
overflowed and broke into thousands of channels, spilling out over
the country. In those places where the miraculous water was
sampled, people who had become divided were brought together
again and disagreements were settled; and in place of the blood
feud which was the supreme law and which served to keep together
tribes of the same origin, a new sentiment began to make itself felt:
a sentiment of brotherhood among men bound together by common
ideals of morality and religion. As soon as this spring became an
irresistible river, its pure and vigorous stream encircled mighty
kingdoms representing old civilizations, and, before their peoples
could realize the true import of the event, it overtook them,
levelling countries, demolishing barriers, waking slumbering minds
with its noise and making a united community out of the widest
variety of nations.

Such a phenomenon had never before been witnessed in
history. It is difficult to appreciate the speed with which Islam

Jiggy

THE RAPID SPREAD OF ISLAM

accomplished its conquests and changed from the religion of a few
enthusiasts to that of millions of men. It is still a puzzle to the
human mind to discover what were the secret forces which enabled
rough warriors to triumph over people so far their superiors in
civilization, wealth, experience and ability to wage war. It is
surprising how these people could occupy so much territory and
then consolidate their conquests in such a way that even centuries
of warfare did not succeed in dislodging them; how they could
inspire the souls of their followers with so much zeal for their
ideals, preserve a pulsating vitality unknown to other religions,
even ten centuries after the death of Muhammad; and infuse into the
minds of their followers, although of an age and culture quite
different from that of the first Muslims, a burning faith capable of
any sacrifice.

Islam, which during the Meccan period of Muhammad's
ministry had been exclusively concerned with making an earnest
appeal on behalf of monotheism, became, after the emigration of
the Prophet and his followers to Medina, a powerful political force.
Muhammad, the patient victim of the sarcasm and persecution of
the Quraysh, having been invested by God with the mission of
defending himself from his enemies, was compelled to take up the
sword and was thenceforth granted no respite by his enemies which
could permit him to put it down.

Not even two years had elapsed from that memorable day when
God granted the sorely persecuted Muslims permission to oppose
force by force, which marks the beginning of the ascendancy of
Islam and of a real social and political revolution, when the
followers of Muhammad won their first battle over the people of
Mecca. From that day, except for a few, perhaps inevitable checks,
Islam witnessed an unbroken series of encounters, battles and
conquests in the religions as well as in the political fields. In the

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

eighth year these culminated in an event of surpassing importance,
namely, the conquest of Mecca itself. '

Arab warriors left their deserts and moved across the
boundaries into Palestine and further North into Syria. A great
expedition against Syria from where the next attack was appre-
hended, was about to be prepared when the voice of the Prophet,
which had caused such intense excitement in so many human
hearts, and which was soon to make such a strong appeal to more
distant peoples, was stilled forever in death in the eleventh year of
the Hegira.

Arabia was now unified. The disruptive activities of the
Bedouins, who tried to revive the anarchy of the pre-Islamic period,
did not achieve their objective, being defeated and overcome by the
government at Medina. This may well be claimed the first miracle
of the new religion: a country which for centuries had been the field
of continuous and fratricidal battles, at last knew security and
peace!

The passage in the Quran which refers to the universality of
Islam as the religion sent by God to his Prophet as “‘a mercy for all
peoples” * is a direct appeal to the worlds. * This is definite proof
that the Prophet felt with an absolute certainty that his mission was
to go beyond the limits of the Arab nation and that he was to
convey the new Word to people of different races and languages.
Evidence of the same consciousness is also found in the tradition
| The custom of making razzias has been considered a legitimate form of
warfare in Arabia since the most remote times, and is not to be judged by
concepts prevailing in modern European society.

2 Surah 21, Verse 108.
3 See Surah 12, Verse 105; Surah 38, Verse 88; Surah 68, Verse 53;

Surah 81, Verse 28, where the word “worlds” is construed as meaning
humanity in the larger sense.
iW

THE RAPID SPREAD OF ISLAM

which mentions that it was a custom of Muhammad’s to address
himself to “the red and to the black ones”, or to employ other

similar expressions. Further evidence is furnished by the mention of
future conquests beyond the boundaries of Arabia, and finally in the
contacts which Muhammad himself began to make with foreign
countries.

The Caliphs who succeeded Muhammad as Heads of the
Islamic State, being the faithful interpreters of his thinking, fol-
lowed the road which he had opened, and carried the flag of Islam
to the center of Asia on the East and to the Atlantic Ocean on the
West.

Sixteen years had elapsed since the Hegira * when the Persian
empire, which for centuries had fought against the Byzantine
Empire without either one destroying the other, broke up beyond
recovery at the Battle of Quadisiyya. The fleeing king went from
province to province, up to the extreme boundaries of the empire,
and died in the thirty-first year of the Hegira. The Persian empire
became Arab territory.

In the meantime, the occupation of Palestine and Syria was
completed. These countries could be considered definitely in Arab
hands by the Islamic year 19. In the year 21, the victorious army
pushed itself up to Mosul, in the center of Armenia. A fleet was
built and an annual expedition set sail from the harbour of Syria in
Asia-Minor to carry the war to the very Capital of the Byzantine
Empire. In the year 18, the first Arab army appeared in Egypt, and
in the year 21 Alexandria capitulated: in the year 23, Tripoli was
conquered, and in 27 the first important expedition was undertaken
against South Tunisia. But why go on listing these dates? The army

Literally: “migration”. It indicates the departure on June 20, 622, of Muhammad
from Mecca. The Muslim era starts with that event.

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

moved fast, battles followed each other, success seemed to give
wings to the feet of the conquerors: the Caliphates of Abu Bakr

(13 a.h.), of Omar (23 a.h.), of Othman (35 a.h.) resounded with the
joyful news of wonderful victories. These were followed by the
organization and consolidation of the conquered territories, which
was an achievement not less marvellous than the conquests
themselves.

Two civilizations and two religions having been demolished, a
new stream of intense life began to flow in the veins of these
exhausted peoples. There unfolded before the eyes of an astonished
world a new religion, a simple, easy, one which speaks to the heart
and to the brain; a new form of government, far superior in its
moral principles and qualities to those existing at that time, was
established; gold that had been hidden in the safes of plutocrats
began changing bands and going to the poor, starting a system of
healthy circulation once again; educated, capable, intelligent men
under the guidance of a government ruled by honest, democratic
ideals found encouragement in the new order and were able to rise
to the highest public offices. It is safe to say that after a few
inevitable excesses by soldiers during the invasions, a new era of
prosperity and wealth was ushered in, a richness which Asia had
not witnessed for centuries. The life of the conquered peoples, their
civil rights and wealth received a degree of protection
approximating to that enjoyed by the Muslims themselves.

Disturbed by such a profound political and religious trans-
formation, men asked themselves what had brought it about? But
many of them were blind or purposely closed their eyes, wandering
long and hopelessly in a labyrinth of wrong conjectures. They could
not realize that only a holy force could have supplied the first
impulse for such a vast movement. They did not want to believe
that the wisdom of God alone was responsible for the mission of
Muhammad, the last of the great law-bearing Prophets, the one who
forever concluded their series. Such a mission had to be a universal

THE RAPID SPREAD OF ISLAM

mission for all mankind without distinction of nationality, country
or race. They were either blind or did not want to see. These people
went on spreading the word that the essence of Islam was violent
aggression. They claimed it was a religion imposed by the sword;
they charged it with intolerance. They accused Muhammad himself
of lying, of cruelty and of lust. They tried to demolish his admirable
work of social and religious reform. They tried to make the
devotion of his companions and followers appear as selfish interest,
and represented them as people animated only by a desire for
wealth and worldly prosperity.

We must first of all consider this charge of the “aggressive
spirit of Islam’. If by it is meant that Muhammad, as distinct from
the founders of other religions, used his sword and organized
military expeditions, looking to further distant successes and
conquests, and that his example was imitated by his followers, then
we must say that this is true; but we must also search with an
equally open mind why this had to be. If the charge is that a
destructive war was the necessary way to impose the faith, and that
the need of conquests was an essential part of the very nature of the
Islamic religion, then we must reject the accusation, for we can
prove, using as evidence the Quran and the actions of Muhammad
himself, that this is entirely false.

The Prophet, as one inspired, used to speak to the people of
Mecca and tell them of his celestial visions, which demanded of
him the patient bearing of injuries and aroused the distrust of the
Quraysh. When he made the difficult decision to migrate to Medina
and thus became the center of a political struggle, he had to choose
between dying ignominiously, which would have been against the
wishes of God, and fighting to save himself and his small
community from ruin. The struggle was between anarchy, the
materialism of barbarian pagans, and the disagreements and
falsehoods of the highly civilized but intolerant Jews on the one

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

hand, and a high ideal of religious and social regeneration on the
other.

This was the ideal which Muhammad desired at any cost to
achieve and he fought as only a meek one could fight against
arrogance, as one who has little will to fight is compelled to fight
against those who are bent upon his destruction by force. This he
did with very little help, but with the certainty that he was opening
the way for carrying the truth to many lives, and that he was
charged to indicate the right road in the midst of darkness. Arriving
in Medina, he had first of al] lent his friendly hand to the Jews, who
in this city represented a rich and flourishing group. He invited
them to loyal cooperation in political and social unity. But when he
realized that they were utterly hostile to him and that they were bent
upon the pursuit of a false and traitorous course, he had to fight and
punish them. War against external enemies was a necessity of the
times; no Arab of the desert could adapt himself to a condition of
permanent peace, having been accustomed for centuries to wage
war aS a normal pursuit. Consequently, once Muhammad had
settled internal conflicts, he had to face the hostility of the Quraysh
and of those tribes which were not yet in treaty relations with him.
But war with its risks and military tnumphs helped to cement the
new community. It furnished the necessary means of survival for
the companions who had migrated with the Prophet from Mecca to
Medina. It satisfied the natural propensities of the Bedouins; and in
a barbarian milieu which was rendered attractive by dangers,
boldness and adventures, it represented a means of safeguarding life
and of facilitating the fulfilment of the Prophet’s mission. War was
always a means of safeguarding and exalting the true faith and not
an end in itself; it was a necessary defence, not an unjust offence.

The Quran clearly expressed this idea:

THE RAPID SPREAD OF ISLAM

And fight in the cause of Allah against those
who fight against you, but do not transgress. Surely,
Allah loves not the transgressors.

And fight them until there is no persecution,
and religion is freely professed for Allah. But if they
desist, then remember that no hostility is allowed
except against the aggressors. °

To deny that the Muslims pushed their conquests by a certain
spirit of aggression, would certainly be to exhibit an extreme
ignorance of human nature. But is it really right to blame this on
their religion? Once they had discovered their strength and the
weakness of their opponents, what power on earth could have
stopped their impetuosity and kept them within the limits of the
law? Nevertheless even at the peak of their power and triumph, the
victorious Arabs were always ready to tell their enemies: “Give up
the fighting, pay a modest tax, and we will grant you full
protection; or accept Islam, become a member of our community,
and you will have the same rights as we have ourselves”.

If we look into the prophecies of Muhammad or at the first
Muslim conquests, it is easy to see how false was the accusation
that Islam was imposed by the sword and that only by such means
could its rapid and wide diffusion be accounted for. The Quran
says:

There should be no compulsion in Religion.
Surely, right has become distinct from wrong; so
whosoever refuses to be led by those who trans-
gress, and believes in Allah, has surely grasped a
strong handle which knows no breaking. And Allah
is All-Hearing, All-Knowing. ,

> Surah 2, Verse 191.
© Surah 2, Verse 194.
7 Surah 2, Verse 257.

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

And say, ‘/t is the truth from your Lord;
wherefore let him who will, believe, and let him
who will, disbelieve.’ *

Muhammad, always following these divine principles, was
very tolerant, particularly towards the followers of monotheistic
religions. He knew how to show patience with the pagans, always
waiting in the belief that time would complete his work of
conversion. He was satisfied with what we would call a purely
formal conversion of the Bedouins, because he knew that these sons
of the desert were impatient by nature of checks of any kind. He
well knew that God would finally enter into the human heart.

“Why do you want to push men to believe when faith can only
come from God?” he said one day to one of his followers. At the
time when the verses which deal with tolerance were revealed, he
was not a dreamer followed by a small group of dreamers like him,
nor a philosopher paralyzed by his awareness of a diversity of
forces, but rather a man in the fullness of his strength at the head of
a highly organized state, commanding goad, obedient soldiers
whom he could always have used against anyone.

The history of the first decades of Islam provides us with
several examples of the religious tolerance shown by the first
Caliphs towards followers of monotheistic religions. Just as the
Prophet himself gave guarantees to the Christians of Nejran that
their Christian institutions would be preserved and gave orders to
the head of an expedition to Yemen that no Jews be molested in his
Judaism, so the Caliphs gave similar instructions to their generals
on the conduct of their armies in war. These triumphant generals
followed Muhammad’s example in making agreements with the
conquered peoples. By virtue of these agreements, the conquered
were granted the freedom of following the old religion and

8 Surah 18, Verse 30.
23

THE RAPID SPREAD OF ISLAM

traditions, provided that those who did not accept Islam would pay
the government a fair tax, jizya. This tax was lighter than the taxes
which the Muslims were liable to pay to their own government. In
return these subjects (called Dhimmi) were granted protection not
different from that enjoyed by the Muslim community itself.
Consequently, as the practices followed by the Prophet and by the
first orthodox Caliphs became jaw itself for later Muslims, it is no
exaggeration to insist that Islam was not satisfied with preaching
religious tolerance, but that it made tolerance a part of its religious
law.

Once agreements with the defeated peoples were made, the
Muslims left them freedom of religion and did not use violence to
compel conversions. The Muslim armies were not followed by a
troop of insistent and unwanted preachers, nor did they place
preachers in specially favoured positions to expound or defend their
creed. On the contrary, at one period they imposed a practice on the
Muslim neophytes which certainly did not help to facilitate the
spread of Islam, namely, the requirement to present themselves
before the quadi and to declare that their conversion was not the
result of any pressure and that it had no wordly gain as its object.
During the time of the Omayyad Caliphs, there was even an attempt
to stop the stream of conversions, which was somewhat
embarrassing from the economic point of view since the loss of the
jizya was causing a diminution in revenue from taxes. Not only
were Jews and Christians left to live in peace without any
questioning of their religious beliefs, but they were named to
offices in the government when their personal qualifications were
of such a nature as to attract the notice of the rulers. Certain
restrictions imposed on Christians and Jews in the matter of
freedom of religion, certain rules requiring the carrying of visible
signs designed to mark them out as Jews or Christians, prohibitions
against the building of new churches or the repairing of old ones—
these are incidents of later periods which were more marked by

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

fanaticism, when nations other than the Arabs imported a certain
tendency towards bigotry into Islam.

Of course, it cannot be denied that even Muslims, like the
followers of all other religions, exhibited some of those flames of
passion which kindle hate and spread blood. But we must realize
that these had their first cause in facts external to the religion of
Isiam itself and that Islam had the effect of quieting them down in
order to make room for mildness and benevolence. It must also be
admitted that Islam was not spared its share of conflict among the
various Islamic sects, a conflict which carried in its wake inevitable
persecutions; but for this as well, the main explanation is to be
found in political or dynastic rivalries. Islam itself furnishes no
justification or warrant for them.

Blinded by hate, the most powerful enemies of Islam have
sought to smear the Prophet of God with calumnious charges. They
forget that Muhammad before he began his mission was highly
esteemed by his own countrymen for integrity of conscience and
purity of life. Nor do these people stop to ask themselves how could
it be that Muhammad could have threatened liars and hypocrites
with the eternal fire in the burning words of the Quran if he himself
had been a liar. How could he have dared to preach, in spite of the
insults of his countrymen, if he, a man of simple nature, had not
been continuously urged on by inner forces? How could he have
started a struggle which looked hopeless? How could he have
carried it on for over ten years at Mecca with very little success and
countless sorrows, if he had not the very deep conviction of the
truth of his mission? How could so many noble and intelligent
Muslims have believed in him and thrown in their lot with him,
joined the new faith and consequently associated themselves with a
society made up for the most part of slaves, freedmen and indigent
people if they had not felt in his word the sincerity of the Truth?
We do not need to say more, for even among Occidentals the truth
is well accepted that the sincerity of Muhammad was deep and true.

THE RAPID SPREAD OF ISLAM

Against the accusation of cruelty the answer is easy.
Muhammad, Head of a State, defender of the life and freedom of
his people, in the exercise of justice punished severely individuals
guilty of crimes, and this attitude of his has to be considered in the
light of his times and also in the light of the wild and barbarian
society in which he lived. Muhammad, as a preacher of the religion
of God, was gentle and merciful even towards his personal enemies.
In him were blended justice and mercy, two of the noblest qualities
which the human mind can conceive. It is not difficult to support
this with many examples that are to be found in his biographies.
One of his biographers says, “War, this horrible necessity of human
life, was in practice made less cruel by him.” Another reports that
he was accustomed to giving this order to his soldiers: “Spare the
aged, the women, and the children; refrain from demolishing the
homes of those who do not resist you; do not destroy their means of
subsistence; do not destroy fruit-bearing trees; do not touch palm
trees.”

In another chapter we shall deal with the accusation of
licentiousness, as well as show how noble and sublime the work of
this reformer really was, this reformer who, within the span of a
few years, transformed a welter of idolatrous and barbarous people
into a united monotheistic community, which was animated by the
highest moral sentiments. The facts will also refute the point of
view of those who see in the greater number of Muhammad’s
followers only egotistical speculators and greedy robbers, pushed
towards his party by a desire for spoils and conquest. It would
occupy us far too long to cite instances which testify to the brilliant
ardour, the unbounded pity, the devoted zeal of the majority of his
followers. Suffice it to say that there are certain kinds of conflicts
which cannot be won unless there is present a very powerful moral
factor, an abiding faith in the justice of the cause—and this factor
Islam possessed.

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

Having dealt briefly with the accusations which are most
commonly advanced against Islam, let us face the question: How
can it be explained that in spite of the great freedom of religion
granted in the Islamic nations to non-Muslim citizens, and in the
absence of any real missionary organization, Islam continues to
make progress in Asia and Africa in the face of the widespread
decline of religion in recent years? Today, it cannot be said that the
sword of the conqueror paves the way—on the contrary, in regions
which once were Muslim states, new governments of other
religions are in power and strong missionary organizations have
been working among the Muslims over long periods—and yet they
have not succeeded in removing Islam from the life of the Muslim
peoples.

What miraculous strength is hidden in this religion? What inner

power of persuasion is blended in it? From what depths of the
human soul does its appeal evoke a stirring response?

27.

CHAPTER II

The Simplicity of Islamic
Dogma

Islam approaches the individual with a two-fold invitation; to
believe that there is only one God and that Muhammad is sent by
God.

The Arabic prophet, with a voice which was inspired by a deep
communion with his Master, preached the purest monotheism to the
worshippers of fetish and the followers of a corrupt Christianity and
Judaism. He put himself in open conflict with those regressive
tendencies of mankind which lead to the association of other beings
with the Creator.

Say, ‘He is Allah, the One;

‘Allah, the Independent and Besought of all.
‘He begets not, nor is He begotten;

‘And there is none like unto Him.’ ’

1 Surah 112, Verses 2-5.
29

THE SIMPLICITY OF ISLAMIC DOGMA

In order to lead men to a belief in one God, he did not delude
them with tales of happenings which deviate from the normal
course of nature—the so-called miracles; nor did he compel them to
keep quiet by using celestial threats which only undermine man’s
ability to think. Rather, he simply invited them, without asking
them to leave the realm of reality, to consider the universe and its
laws. Being confident of the resultant belief in the one and
indispensable God, he simply let men read in the book of life.
Muhammad Abduh and Ameer Ali both state that Muhammad was
content to appeal to the intimate conscience of the individual and to
the intuitive judgment of man.

And your God is One God; there is no God but
He, the Gracious, the Merciful.

Verily, in the creation of the heavens and the
earth and in the alternation of night and day, and in
the ships which sail in the sea with that which
profits men, and in the water which Allah sends
down from the sky and quickens therewith the earth
after its death and scatters therein all kinds of beasts,
and in the change of the winds, and the clouds
pressed into service between the heaven and the
earth—are indeed Signs for the people who
understand.

And there are some among men who take for
themselves objects of worship other than Allah,
loving them as they should love Allah. ”

There is more than one passage in the Quran which invites the
reader to take into consideration the testimony offered by nature.

2 Surah 2, Verses 164-166.
30

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

I shall quote only some verses from the chapter known as ‘‘The
Merciful’’.

And He has set the earth for His creatures;

Therein are all kinds of fruit and palm-trees
with sheaths,

And grain with its husk and fragrant plants.

Which, then, of the favours of your Lord will
you twain deny, O men and Jinn?

He created man from dry ringing clay which is
like baked pottery.

And the Jinn He created from the flame of
fire.

Which, then, of the favours of your Lord will
you twain deny?

The Lord of the two Easts and the Lord of the
two Wests!

Which, then, of the favours of your Lord will
you twain deny?

He has made the two bodies of water flow.
They will one day meet.

Between them is now a barrier; they encroach
not one upon the other.

Which, then, of the favours of your Lord will
you twain deny?

There come out from them pearls and coral.

Which, then, of the favours of your Lord will
you twain deny?

And His are the lofty ships reared aloft on the
sea like mountains.

Which, then, of the favours of your Lord will
you twain deny? :

3 Surah 55, Verses 11-26.
31

THE SIMPLICITY OF ISLAMIC DOGMA

Thanks to Islam, paganism in its various forms was defeated.
The concept of the universe, the practices of religion, and the
customs of social life were each liberated from all the monstrosities
which had degraded them, and human minds were made free of
prejudice. Man finally realized his dignity. He humbled himself
before the Creator, the Master of all mankind; he not only could
say, but as a matter of fact had to say, with Abraham:

I have turned my face toward Him who cre-
ated the Heavens and the Earth, being ever inclined
to God, and I am not one of those who associate
gods with God. *

And with Muhammad:

My prayers and my sacrifice and my life and
my death are all for Allah, the Lord of the Worlds.
He has no partner. And so am I commanded,
and I am the first of those who submit. °

The spirit was liberated from prejudice, man's will was set free
from the ties which had kept it bound to the will of other men, or
other so-called hidden powers. Priests, false guardians of mysteries,
brokers of salvation, all those who pretended to be mediators
between God and man and consequently believed they had
authority over other people’s wills, fell from their pedestals. Man
became the servant of God alone and towards other men he had
only the obligations of one free man towards other free men. While
previously men had suffered from the injustices of social
differences, Islam proclaimed equality among human beings. Each
Muslim was distinguished from other Muslims not by reason of
birth or any other factor not connected with his personality, but

4 Surah 6, Verse 80.
5 Surah 6, Verses 163-164.

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

only by his fear of God, his good deeds, his moral and intellectual
qualities.

The Quran states:

O mankind, We. have created you from a male
and a female; and We have divided you into tribes
and sub-tribes that you may recognize one of an-
other. Verily, the most honourable among you, in
the sight of Allah, is he who is the most righteous
among you.

A tradition says:

With Islam, God has caused the disappearance
of pride, which was a characteristic of pagans, and
of their habit of talking about their fathers: because
man was born of Adam, and Adam of dust.
According to God, the noblest of men is the one
who is most fearful of Him.

Islam swept away the secrecy with which others had shrouded
the study of sacred scriptures, reproaching those who were only
able to recite the words and comparing those who claimed to be the
repositories of the Pentateuch to a donkey loaded with books. It
invited any man of religious sentiments to acquire the knowledge
that was necessary for understanding God’s word. Among the
Muslims, there was no duly authorized exegesis of the holy book on
which they were required to base their beliefs. Nor were there
councils or synods which, after discussion, presumed to lay down
the precise formula which was to be considered as the living
symbol of orthodoxy. Islam did not grant to any one of its followers
the right to pass judgment on the faith of another brother.

6 Surah 49, Verse 14.
33

THE SIMPLICITY OF ISLAMIC DOGMA
The Quran had said:

O ye who believe! let not one people deride
another people, who may be better than they. 4

And tradition has fully established the idea that the acceptance
of a believer’s faith and deeds is God’s privilege denying to any
servant of God the right to pass judgment on another servant’s piety
by his approval or disapproval. Later on, when theological studies
degenerated into subtle scholarly discussions, followers of different
schools accused each other of misbelief and attempted to persuade
the civil government to determine the penalties to be imposed on
heterodoxy. In the fifth century of the Islamic era, thanks to a great
thinker of Islam, Al-Ghazali, a doctrine was proclaimed that
agreement on the principal dogmas of faith was the only basis for
recognizing men as believers, and that differences in respect of
dogmatic or ritual details could not provide any basis for exclusion.
“You must stop condemning those people who, in their prayers,
face towards Mecca.” This was the rule laid down by the
philosopher. It at once rendered valueless any dogmatic
speciousness, any formulae which pretended to be the only ones
through which salvation could be achieved; and Islamic society was
restored to that open minded spirit of tolerance which had been an
essential characteristic of the early Muslims and which, because of
a false interpretation of the spirit of religion, was in danger of
disappearing.

The God of Islam, One in His essence, in His attributes, and in
His acts, is an all-mighty God, Judge of the Universe and Master of
the day of judgment. He will call to Him all those who have not
treated His call with sarcasm or contempt, and who were able to
rise from the materiality of their personalities and their earthly
belongings, to the sentiment of utter dependence upon the Creator.

7 Surah 49, Verse 12.
34

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

In the earliest Surahs of the Quran, God’s inspiration is expressed
in eschatological representations. Woe to those who do not repent
and do not submit themselves to God. Terrible punishments, very
painful indeed, await them. Woe to those who dare to resist or
despise the guidance of Prophets sent to them. God will exterminate
them. He is the one who knows everything, sees everything, hears
everything. He is the Creator of Heaven and earth, of life and death.
He is the Master of the Throne. His knowledge is perfect. His will
is absolute; His power irresistible. All these qualities are revealed
by His own works. While everything needs Him, He depends only
upon things originated by Him. He does not resemble any one of
His creatures; His only connection with them is that He created
them; they belong to Him and they will come back to Him. But this
very powerful God is also a just God. An unjust God cannot be
conceived. He knows about the most insignificant good deed done
by any one of His creatures and He will not allow it to be lost; He
will not do the smallest injustice to anyone, not even as small as the
fibre which goes to make up the stone of the date. ®

Muslim and Christian theologians have often asked themselves
how to answer the problem of man’s free will. Different solutions
have been offered, according to the sect to which the theologian
belonged, but all answers hinge on the preceding axiom of divine
justice and on other statements found in the Quran, to the effect that
man’s actions, whether good or bad, are the result of his complete
freedom. Muhammad Abduh states that fairly early in Islam such a
feeling of dependence in all fields of human consciousness began to
develop that a favourable climate was created for the triumph of the
negation of the free will; virtues and vices, crimes and punishments
were all regarded as due solely to God’s will, man’s will had
dropped out of consideration. Today, on the contrary, the majority
of Muslims, apart from a few relatively unimportant groups, have

8 See Surah 4, Verse 50.
35

THE SIMPLICITY OF ISLAMIC DOGMA

reverted to the idea of laying responsibility for action back on a
man's own conscience.

God does not bar His road to anyone, not even to the wrong-
doers; He bestows upon all the power and the capacity to perform
good deeds. Those expressions in the Quran which could be con-
strued as contradicting this idea, can be explained when we fully
understand their true import. Man in his relation to God can be
compared to the traveller who makes a mistake in the desert while
searching for the correct road to take him to his final destination.
The one who, thanks to his faith and good deeds, is deserving of
God’s mercy and benevolence will be rewarded by God with
guidance while God will leave alone the one who does not occupy
himself with good deeds; God will not stretch His arm towards him,
but at the same time He will not be the one who puts him on the
evil road.

This omnipotent God, ready to punish, is also the Merciful, the
Guardian of His servants, the Defender of the orphan, the Guide of
the sinner, the Liberator from pain, the Friend of the poor, the
generous and ready-to-forgive Master. He listens; He grants favours
because well-being is in His hands.

God’s mercy is one of the most frequent themes of the Quran;
the attributes, Ar-Rahman, Ar-Rahim— “the Merciful’, “the

Clement” with which each chapter begins virtually represent the
basic themes of the entire text.

God’s blessing is assured to the sinner who repents; even the
wrongdoer may hope for it, for, although God can overtake with
His punishment anyone He wishes, His mercy “encompasses
everything”, and because He himself has commanded that mercy
shall be an unbreakable law. °

, Surah 7,Verse 157.
36

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM
This accords perfectly with what tradition brings to us:

When God had perfected the creation, He
wrote in the book which He kept near Him: ‘My
mercy triumphs over my anger’.

God divided mercy into one hundred parts;
He kept ninety-nine of them for Himself and re-
leased one for the world; from that alone comes all
the grace which mankind enjoys.

Among the divine attributes we find that of love. The Quran
says:

If ye love Allah, follow me: then will Allah
love you and forgive you your faults. And Allah is
Most Forgiving, Merciful. ”

But this is not enough. In a collection of the forty most
important traditional sayings, we find this revelation of God to
Muhammad: “By means of freely supporting charitable institutions,
My servant will more and more approach Me so that I will love
him, and when I love him, I am his eye, his ear, his tongue, his
hand; thanks to Me he will see, hear, speak, walk.”

We doubt if this concept of God, composed of all the most
perfect qualities, and purified from all the imperfect ones, would
appear as noble and elevated to everyone. Certainly it would be said
that it is not original, that it is too much like the Jewish and the
Christian concepts, and that no new element has been introduced by
Islam to illustrate the relationship between man and God. But what
value would such criticism have if we realize that Muhammad
himself did not claim to bring new ideas but explicitly declared that

i Surah 3, Verse 32.
37

THE SIMPLICITY OF ISLAMIC DOGMA

he had been sent by God to restore the religion of Abraham,
corrupted by those who came after, and to reconfirm what God had
already revealed to preceding prophets like Moses, Isaiah, Jesus
Christ? He was but the last of the lawbearing prophets.

Islam came at a time when people were divided into religious
sects, when they were fighting and cursing each other, each sect
believing itself to be the sole repository of the word of God—at a
time when fighting and fanaticism were considered a necessary part
of religious life. Islam came and proclaimed that religion had at all
times, and by the mouths of all the prophets, been simply one—that
in essence it had taught always the same things; to hold God alone
in His sovereignty, to submit to His will, and to obey His
commandments, practising good and keeping away from evil.
Furthermore, Islam insisted that the variety of forms and rituals
which different religions presented, proceeded from the mercy of
God, Who gave to each people in each particular time a religion
suited to its needs and susceptible of development along with the
progress of the human mind; but it insisted that at last, when
mankind had been prepared by events and had reached a state of
maturity and was in a position to comprehend a divine Teaching,
which appealed not only to the emotions but also to the intellect,
Muhammad had appeared to reconcile all these teachings for the
benefit of humanity, to settle the differences between the “people of
the book”, which means Christians and Jews, and to guide men
towards the attainment of happiness both in this life and in the one
beyond.

All Muslims agree that faith in God comes from faith in the
Prophets. We could not have faith in the Prophets or in the words of
a revealed book, if these had not been preceded by the certainty in
the human soul of the existence of God and by the probability that
He might send Prophets bearing His guidance. Consequently, the
first duty of man is to consider the phenomena of nature and to
meditate upon them in order to arrive at the certainty of the

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

existence of God. Starting from this fundamental, there is then
developed faith in the Prophets and in the revealed books. In its
revealed book Islam has something of the miraculous.

The miracle of Islam par excellence is the Quran, through
which a constant and unbroken tradition transmits to us news of an
absolute certainty. This is a book which cannot be imitated. Each of
its expressions is a comprehensive one, and yet it is of proper size,
neither too long nor too short. Its style is original. There is no
model for this style in Arab literature of the times preceding it. The
effect which it produces on the human soul is obtained without any
adventitious aid through its own inherent excellences. The verses
are equally eloquent all through the text, even when they deal with
topics, such as commandments and prohibitions, which must
necessarily affect its tone. Stories of Prophets, descriptions of the
beginning and the end of the world, enumerations and expositions
of the divine attributes are repeated but repeated in a way which is
so impressive that they do not weaken the effect. The text proceeds
from one topic to another without losing its power. Depth and
sweetness, qualities which generally do not go together, are found
together here, where each rhetoric figure finds a perfect application.
How could this marvellous book be the work of Muhammad, an
illiterate Arab who in all his life composed only two or three verses,
none of which reveals the least poetic quality, e.g. “I am the
Prophet and do not lie. lam the son of Abd el-Muttalib.”?

Although the opponents of Islam were invited by Muhammad
to compose a book similar to his own, or, at least, a chapter (“And
if you are in doubt as to what We have sent down to Our servant,
then produce a chapter like it;’), '' and although those who had the
ability to express themselves with. great eloquence were plentiful
among the Arabs, yet nobody was able to produce anything which

1 Surah 2, Verse 24.
39

THE SIMPLICITY OF ISLAMIC DOGMA

could stand in comparison with the Quran; they ‘fought the Prophet
with arms but failed to match the excellence of the Quran’.

For the book, besides its perfection in form and method, proved
itself beyond imitation even in its substance. In it, among other
things, we read a forecast of future events, and a description of
events which had taken place centuries before but were generally
ignored. There are frequent references to the laws of nature, to
various sciences, both religious and secular. We find there vast
stores of knowledge which are beyond the capacity of the most
intelligent of men, the greatest of philosophers and the ablest of
politicians. For all these reasons the Quran could not be the work of
an uneducated man, who had spent al! his life in the midst of an
unrefined society far away from men of learning and religion, a
man who always insisted that he was but a man just like any other,
and, as such, unable to perform miracles unless he had the help of
Almighty God. The Quran could have its source only in Him
Whose knowledge comprehends everything in heaven and earth.

We have still another proof of the divine origin of the Quran in
the fact that its text has remained pure and unaltered through the
centuries from the day of its delivery until today, and will remain
so, God willing, as long as the universe continues to exist. Read
over and over again all through the Muslim world, this work does
not induce in the believer any sense of weariness. On the contrary,
through repeated reading it endears itself more and more each day.
It arouses a deep sense of reverence and awe in one who reads or
hears it. It can be readily learned by heart, so that today, in spite of
the low ebb of faith, thousands of people can repeat it by heart. In
Egypt alone there are more huffaz '* than there are people in all
Europe who can recite the Gospels by heart.

It was not the use of force nor the efforts of insistent mis-
sionaries that brought about the rapid spread of Islam. Rather, it

? Plural of Hafiz (lit: Guardian) i.e. one who has learnt the Quran by heart.
40

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

was the fact that the Book which was presented by the Muslims to
the conquered people, with freedom to accept or reject it, was the
Book of God, the word of the Truth, the greatest miracle that
Muhammad could have presented to the faltering ones on earth.

Apart from the two fundamental dogmas already mentioned,
the unity of God and the mission of Muhammad, all other dogmas
in which the Muslims believe and which are accepted by the
Islamic community after centuries of study and debate, are not of
such a nature as in any way to obstruct modern science or to raise
Opposition to philosophical truths. Concerning the Creation, the
Quran, though it refers to the primordial state and to the origin of
the world (“Do not the disbelievers see that the heavens and the
earth were a closed-up mass, then we opened them out? And we
made from water every living thing.”) '° does not put any
limitation whatever upon the powers of the human mind, but
leaves it free to go its own way. Concerning natural laws, it
limits itself to stating that God has promulgated certain laws
which rule the Creation and which do not change.

While all other religions prescribe for their followers a
heavy load of doctrines which are hard both to carry and to
understand, Islam is a religion of marvellous easiness and of
crystal-clear simplicity. This was also another cause of its
speedy diffusion at the time of the early conquests among
people who had fallen into deep spiritual confusion on
account of the uncertainty of some of their religious dogmas.
It is also the cause of its continuous diffusion today among
uncivilized peoples in Asia and Africa, for Islam can reach
their souls without recourse to long explanations or involved
sermons.

3 Surah 21, Verse 31.
41

CHAPTER ITI

The Meaning of Islamic
Rites

The foundations of Islam, apart from its testimony to the unity
of God, are prayer, fasting, legal alms and the pilgrimage. All these
rituals should be considered from more than the external point of
view, for this would be as superficial as admiring shells without
realizing that they are filled with precious pearls. Each of them has
to be intimately examined in order to discover the secret which
causes the spirit of the believer to be purified through them and
gradually to lift itself towards God. Only then can we see that they
have a double purpose—the exaltation of God by His servants, and
the expression of their gratitude for the gifts bestowed by Him.

Called by the word of the Muezzin to fulfil their first religious
duty, that of prayer, even those who are occupied with mundane
affairs, are brought to a remembrance of their Creator. They begin
the ritual by exalting God and they conclude it by offering Him
their greetings. They always feel at ease in His presence. Humbling
themselves with their foreheads to the ground, they express their
absolute submission to the Divine Power. Words and acts in the

THE MEANING OF ISLAMIC RITES

Islamic prayer each have a particular meaning, which is not so deep
that it cannot be grasped by the average human mind.

This is not the place to enter into an exposition of them; we
shall only say here that the disciplinary character of the various
movements which accompany the words helps to keep the thoughts
of the worshipper concentrated beyond the realm of the body, and
enables him to express his devotion and to render thanks for Divine
bounties in the most profound manner. The practice of facing in the
direction of Mecca keeps alive in the Muslim world the memory of
the glorious place which witnessed the birth of this regenerative
faith, a holy centre around which at all times rotate the religious
sentiments of the believers, all united in adoration of the same God.

The very high value of prayer as a means of moral elevation
and purification of the heart is indicated by the Quran:

Recite that which has been revealed to thee
of the Book, and observe prayer. Surely, prayer re-
strains one from indecency and manifest evil, and
remembrance of Allah indeed is the greatest virtue.
And Allah knows what you do. '

God does not care for the formal observances of a form of cult,
but He does demand the sincere devotion of the heart. This concept
is clearly expressed in the Quran:

Their flesh (i.e. of the animals slaughtered
as sacrifice) reaches not Allah, nor does their blood,
but it is your righteousness that reaches Him. ”

! Surah 29, Verse 46.
* Surah 22, Verse 38.

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

Many are the traditions which confirm God’s wishes in this
matter: “A prayer in this Mosque of Medina,” one of them says, “‘is
worth a thousand prayers in any other mosque, with the exception
of the sanctuary of Mecca; a prayer said there is worth one hundred
thousand prayers recited in other mosques. But above all stands the
value of the prayer which one pronounces in his own house where
no one but God sees him and which has no other purpose than that
of approaching God.”

The prayer of the Muslim has not necessarily to be offered in a
temple, for any place on earth, provided it is clean, is near to God
and consequently fit for prayer, neither priests nor sacrifices nor
ceremonies are needed to lift the heart of man towards his Creator.

For the prayer to be valid, only one condition is necessary—
purity of the body, which also means purity of the soul, and that of
the dress and the place. Islam reconsecrated the old habit of
ablutions, using Muhammad’s example for fixing the details of
them and of the prayer. The Quran does not couple these practices
of cult with any special prescription, so that an eminent modern
writer, Ameer Ali, insists upon the marvellous simplicity and
sobriety of the Quranic ritual which leaves the maximum of
freedom in respect of the most elevated of spiritual functions.

The Friday service, which consists of a sermon and of prayers
recited in common, also has its special advantages and significance.
By bringing all Muslims together in the same ritual of humility and
submission to the Lord, it makes them feel that they are all His
creatures and thus brothers. The requirement that worshippers
should follow the Imam, that is, the leader, in the act of the prayer,
subjects them to a certain experience of discipline and obedience.
Last of all, through the sermon, the Imam opens their hearts and
lifts them to God.

The second “Pillar” of Islam is the institution of fasting, which,
as is known, consists of abstention from eating, drinking and

THE MEANING OF ISLAMIC RITES

smoking and from marital intercourse during the hours of day-light
all through the month of Ramadan. It is a practice of discipline, of
mercy and of pity. It requires the believer to abstain from all the
pleasures of the body during a certain period. It teaches him to curb
his passions. By making him go hungry and to understand how
painful this can be, it makes him have pity for the poor and the
indigent. By making him appreciate what he has, it deepens his
gratitude towards God. This compulsory fasting is prescribed for
healthy and strong persons, is not asked of the weak, the sick, the
traveller, the fighter for the cause of God, or the woman during her
period, during child-bearing and while breast feeding a child. For
God is not harsh towards His creatures and does not ws acts of
devotion which are beyond their strength.

All religions have recognized in some measure the great moral
and social importance of giving alms and have recommended it as a
tangible expression of charity, and as a suitable way to seek the
benevolence of God. Only Islam, however, has the glory of having
made it compulsory, translating into prescription and thus into
reality, the teaching of Christ. Each Muslim is by law compelled to
contribute a portion of his wealth for the benefit of the poor, those
in need, the travellers, the strangers, etc. By fulfilling this religious
duty, he experiences a deeper sense of humanity, purifies his soul of
avarice, and begins to cherish hope of divine reward.

Each Muslim, if certain conditions are fulfilled, has the
obligation to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his
lifetime. The profound forces which are hidden in this prescription
are of such a nature that the human mind can scarcely embrace
them, yet those which are easily intelligible reveal perfect wisdom.
No one can deny the advantage which comes to Islam through the
annual reunion in one place of Muslims coming from all parts of
the world: Arabs, Persians, Afghans, Indians, people from the
Malay Peninsula, people from Maghrib and Sudan, and others all
converge upon the sacred temple for the sole purpose of asking

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

forgiveness from their merciful God. Meeting each other in such a
place for such a purpose they forge new ties of love and
brotherhood.

At least once in the life of a Muslim all differences between
rich and poor, between beggar and Emir, are completely obliterated.
For, during the period of the holy ceremonies, everyone wears the
same very simple clothes, everyone leaves his own personal
ornaments behind, and everyone has only one watchword, “‘Allah-o-
Akbar” (God is great). The rituals which the pilgrims have to fulfill,
such as going around the house of God (Ka’ba), the reunion near
mount Arafat, and the sacrifice at Mina, awaken in him the
remembrance of the great prophets and patriarchs of the past who
have been in the same places. They bring to life again the deeds of
Abraham, the founder of the pure religion, and of his son Ishmael
and his wife Hagar. They awaken in the pilgrim the desire of
imitating them in their compassion and their submission to the will
of God.

God’s wisdom is also made manifest in what we might call the
limiting aspects of the rules relating to the pilgrimage, namely those
prescribing the conditions under which the pilgrimage becomes
obligatory. Those conditions are complete freedom of the
individual, ability to pay the expenses involved, including the cost
of transportation, the ability to support his dependents while the
pilgrim is fulfilling his religious duty, and the feasibility and
practicability of the trip.

In other words, Gad has not imposed on man the observance of
a code too heavy for his strength, nor has He, in any one of the
rituals, imposed inflexible, hard rules. For:

Allah desires to give you facility and He de-
sires not hardship for you. °

3 Surah 2, Verse 186.
47

THE MEANING OF ISLAMIC RITES

Allah desires not that He should place you
in a difficulty, but He desires to purify you and to
complete His favour upon you, so that you may be
grateful. *

Allah burdens not any soul beyond its ca-
pacity. °

Allah desires to lighten your burden, for
man has been created weak. °

All these principles, find confirmation in the tradition which
says, “This religion is not a demanding one.”

4 Surah 5, Verse 7.
> Surah 2, Verse 287.
: Surah 4, Verse 29.

CHAPTER IV

Islamic Morale

Some Western writers have charged that Islamic morale is
dangerous to the individual because it is full of that spirit of
obedience and passive submission to the Divine which is implied in
the name of Islam itself. A man, it is argued, who in the face of the
Almighty has such a sense of dependence upon Him and places
himself so completely in His bands, renouncing his own free will to
Him, cannot have the same urge to do good as one who feels that he
stands before God as the absolute master of his own conscience.

Before we try to present the high ethical concepts which
enlighten the souls of Muhammad’s followers, we shall answer this
accusation with the words of a European scholar, Goldziher: “.
As if the consciousness, so strong in the Muslim, of being
submitted to an inflexible, divine law, or his faith in the trans-
cendence of God were obstacles which would inhibit his ap-
proaching God through faith, virtue, good deeds, and being
received in His mercy! As if the philosophical schematism of re-
ligions could modify the qualities of inner devotion of one who
completely worships and who, being aware of his weakness and his
impulses, humbly raises his spirit toward the omnipotent source of
any strength and perfection whatsoever!”.

ISLAMIC MORALE

Islam was not only not an obstacle to moral perfection; since it
possessed in itself an efficient strength directed towards good
deeds, it succeeded, earlier than other religions, in educating and
raising men towards God. Islam succeeded because it was not less
concerned for the moral responsibility of its members than other
monotheistic religions whose prophets Muhammad recognized as
his teachers, but in certain respects it was even more concerned
than they, because it counted on human weakness and exhorted its
believers towards ideals within their reach. The same virtues which
Judaism and Christianity present as the supreme end of the moral
life of man, are not only set forth but are even prescribed as ideals
in Islam. This is true of the ideals of mercy towards all creatures,
understanding, forgiveness, simplicity, fitness in social contacts,
acceptance of misfortunes, and so on. Quranic statements stressing
good deeds can be found by the thousand, but since we cannot
spend too much time on this chapter, we shall present some of them
selected at random:

And what should make thee know what the
ascent is?

It is the freeing of a slave.

Or feeding in a day of hunger.
An orphan near of kin,

Or a poor man lying in the dust. '

So I warn you of a flaming Fire

None shall enter it but the most wicked one,
Who rejects the truth and turns his back.

But the righteous one shall be kept away from it,

Who gives his wealth to become purified.

! Surah 90, Verses 14-17.
50

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

And he owes no favour to anyone, which is
to be repaid,

Except that he gives his wealth to seek the
pleasure of his Lord, the Most High.
And soon will He be well pleased with him”

And they feed, for love of Him, the poor,
the orphan, and the prisoner,

Saying, ‘We feed you for Allah’s pleasure
only. We desire no reward nor thanks from you.’

And vie with one another in asking for for-
giveness from your Lord, and for a Paradise whose
price is the heavens and the earth, prepared for the
God-fearing—

Those who spend in prosperity and
adversity, and those who suppress anger and pardon
men, and Allah loves those who do good; *

It is not righteousness that you turn your
faces to the East or the West, but truly righteous is
he who believes in Allah and the Last Day and the
angels and the Book and the Prophets, and spends
his money for love of Him, on the kindred and the
orphans and the needy and the wayfarer and those
who ask for charity, and for ransoming the captives;
and who observes Prayer and pays the Zakat; and
those who fulfil their promise when they have made

> Surah 92, Verses 15-22
> Surah 76, Verses 9-10.
4 Surah 3, Verses 134-135.

ISLAMIC MORALE

one, and the patient in poverty and afflictions and
the steadfast in time of war; it is these who have
proved truthful and it is these who are the God-
fearing. °

And help one another in righteousness
and piety; but help not one another in sin and
transgression. And fear Allah; surely, Allah is
severe in punishment. °

Islam stresses the value of good deeds, which are the con-
sequences of human pity toward one’s neighbour, just as it stresses
God’s pity. The orphan, the poor, the humble, the unfortunate are
protected by the most concerned promptness. Islam declares that
brotherhood and charity are the two cornerstones of Muslim
society. This was a great achievement if we compare the Islamic
days with those of paganism, during which, as we see from
numerous passages of the Quran, the ruling class of plutocrats in
their pride and greediness despised and oppressed the poor; bad
faith was continually present in any sort of business transaction, and
no importance was given to the most elementary of duties toward
neighbours.

We shall cite only two of the many verses which deal with
justice:
... Judge between men with justice, and
follow not vain desire, lest it should lead thee astray
from the way of Allah. ’

> Surah 2, Verse 178.
© Surah 5, Verse 3.
” Surah 38, Verse 27.

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

Verily, Allah commands you to make over
the trusts to those entitled to them, and when ye-
judge between men, you judge with justice. *

Everyone can judge for himself the deep sense of humanity
inspired by the following passage from the Quran:

Thy Lord has commanded, Worship none
but Him, and show kindness to parents. If one of
them or both of them attain old age with thee, never
say unto them any word expressive of disgust nor
reproach them, but address them with excellent
speech.

And lower to them the wing of humility out
of tenderness. And say, ‘My Lord, have mercy on

them even as they nourished me in my childhood.’ °

There are also some verses in the Quran which recall the
evangelic teaching often referred to by the Christians as a burden of
the morality of their religion:

Repel evil with that which is best. '°

We could continue with citations from the Quran, all of them
of a very noble sort, but we think it may be valuable to mention a
doctrine which is a more powerful inducement to the practice of
virtue than any exhortation, namely the doctrine that this earthly life
carries in it the seed of the future one: that any good deeds in this
life will help one to reach supreme happiness in the next; that in
order to approach the Almighty, purity of heart and honesty of

3 Surah 4, Verse 59.
9 Surah 17, Verses 24-25.
10 Surah 23, Verse 97.

ISLAMIC MORALE

deeds is necessary; and that everyone will be presented, when in
front of God, with the results of his efforts.

Then whoso does an atom’s weight of good
will see it,

And whoso does an atom’s weight of evil
will also see it.

Surely, Allah wrongs not any one even by
the weight of an atom. And if there be a good deed,
He multiplies it and gives from Himself a great
reward. '

On the other hand, horrible and very painful punishments are
reserved for the wicked and the evil-doers. The last judgment is
presented in fiery colours. God, the supreme judge of the universe,
will ask the good ones to leave the destroyed world and join Him in
the heart of His mercy, while He will cast into the burning abyss of
Gehenna all those who did not pay attention to the admonishments
of the prophets.

It is necessary, here, to refute another accusation that is raised
by the non-believers, that Islam has promised to its followers a
sensual paradise with the gazelle-eyed houris, rivers of milk and
honey, delicious fruits, luxurious vegetation and a graduated scale
of highly material pleasures. Such accusations forget that it was not
possible for the sons of the desert to understand promises of
enjoyment of highly rarified spiritual prizes. For them, it was
necessary to give a realistic description of paradise, almost a
tangible one, in simple words. Only later on when they had reached
higher spiritual levels would it have been possible to speak to the
Bedouin in terms of worshipping God in humility and love. It is,

IT Surah 99, Verses 8-9.
12 Surah 4, Verse 41.

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

however, rank calumny to say that Muhammad and his followers
took these realistic descriptions literally, since from the outset they
found a deeper meaning in them than the description could show,
namely that the greatest happiness would be, according to Al-
Ghazali, in the beautified visions of the soul in the presence of the
Almighty when the curtain which separates man from God is finally
cast aside and the celestial glory appears in all its effulgence.

To support a similar conception of paradise, a tradition says,
“The most favored by God will be those who will see the glory of
God by day and night and will enjoy a happiness as far superior to
all the pleasures of the body as the ocean is superior to a drop of
sweat.”

How then will the Almighty judge the deeds of His servants?
Will that be done on the basis of some external standard, or
according to their consequences? No. The Quran plainly states that
God looks upon intention and motive, the niyya, with which deeds
were accomplished, and this is the basis for a spiritual evaluation of
deeds. It states that the strict observance of the law, if not
accompanied by acts of mercy and charity, will have little value
with God, and that an egotistical or hypocritical motivation will
take away all value from a good deed. We have already seen the
same concept when we were discussing formalities in the practices
of the cult. Now we see it repeated again respecting the deeds of the
believer. The cult has to be “pure”. '° And, it must proceed from the
“soundness” and “righteousness” of heart. \*

Hypocrisy and pride are so vigorously attacked in this religion
that at certain points they are treated as a mild form of polytheism,
for, according to some writers, men who act on these motives

13 surah 98, Verse 3.
14 Surah 26, Verse 90 and Surah 22, Verse 33.

ISLAMIC MORALE

actually associate the idea of God with the desire of gaining
consideration among other men.

Like other religions, Islam gives an explanation of an age-old
problem that continues to puzzle the human mind, namely, why is it
that the wicked appear to enjoy the favours of fortune while the
good are often hit by great misfortunes. Islam teaches that God
grants to rebels, tyrants and unjust ones, a waiting period which
may even go as far as their death. But the moment will come in
which He will reward and punish. It teaches that through
misfortunes, God often tests His servants so as to make manifest the
spirit of resignation with which they humbly submit themselves to
His wishes, saying, “We belong to God and we shall return to
Him.”

The Muslim tradition brings to us a most beautiful definition of
mercy and charity, coupled with a most delicate definition of moral
concepts. It is well known that the lines of the Quran, which taken
alone would not have been sufficient to regulate all human life in its
various contingencies, have been continued, supplemented and
brought to fulfillment by a mass of traditional sayings which go
back to the Prophet. It matters little if in respect of some of these
sayings the question of authenticity and of antiquity is raised. Even
if we grant that they do not all go back to Muhammad himself, yet
the majority embody the spirit of the ancient Muslim community
which had blended together in itself the real spirit of Islam, and
they bring to us the concepts and aspirations of that community.
The reader may judge of the beauty and meaning of the following
traditional sayings:

The one who caresses the head of an orphan
will receive in the day of resurrection an extra light
for each hair his hand touched.

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

To each house there is a key; the key to
paradise is love for the little ones and the poor.

‘No one is a believer if he does not wish for
his brother that which he wishes for himself.

But the most inclusive saying of all is that of the old vagabond
who was converted to Islam:

The Prophet has given me a seven-fold ex-
hortation: 1—love the poor and be close to them;
2—always look at those who are below you and
never towards those who are above you; 3— never
ask anything of anybody; 4—always be devoted to
your parents, even if they annoy you; 5—always tell
the truth even if it is bitter; 6—don’t let insults take
you away from the way of God; 7—often repeat—
“there is no strength and power outside of God”—
because this is a part of the treasure which is hidden
under the throne of God.

When, later on, mysticism enters into Islam, a still
higher ideal will be set before the human soul: that man’s
perfection and man’s happiness rest in the effort to imitate
God’s qualities and to understand the real essence of His
attributes. *°

From the traditional sayings another doctrine arises which
gives a distinctive reputation to Islam. God does not limit His
mercy to man alone but looks upon animals too with love and
tenderness. The lives of animals being for Him on the same basis as

3 This again is based upon a saying of the Prophet:
“Equip yourselves with the attributes of God.”

ISLAMIC MORALE

that of a man, it follows that if man does not want to invoke divine
anger he must have regard for animals; he must always see that they
are given food and drink, and that they have the necessary
sustenance and rest.

Islam, while through the Quran and the Sunna, shows man the
road to virtue, does not forget the needs of human nature, any more
than it ignored man’s weaknesses when it established the practices
of the cult. When Islam gives man a moral perspective to which he
can turn in desperation, it does not go beyond the limits of reality,
nor does it present an ideal of virtue which would be unreachable
save by the few elect. Instead it establishes healthy principles of life
which prove in their application to be of a genuine and admirable
practicability. By presenting a model of integrity and honesty, it
does not depart from the law of life, but remains close to human
nature and takes into consideration the just aspiration of an honest
happiness. Far from creating a difference between the religious life
of the individual and his behavior in the world, it looks towards the
creation of a society where man is at the same time a member of it
and also a devoted servant of God.

According to the Muslims, the best way for man to express his
thanks to God is to make good use of that which God has be-
stowed upon him. To take advantage of the good things which God
has put at the disposal of everybody, is not only a possibility but,
we shall say, a duty, if there is in these good things nothing which
could be dangerous to the individual himself or to his neighbour.
The Quran says:

On those who believe and do good works
there shall be no sin for what they eat, provided they
fear God and believe and do good works, and again

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

fear God and believe, yet again fear God and do
good. And Allah loves those who do good. '®

Say, ‘Who has forbidden the adornment of
Allah which He has produced for His servants, and

the good things of His providing? at!

Tradition is the strongest support for a healthy conception of
life. Here we repeat what we have said already when we spoke of
traditions which contain the highest moral concepts. What does it
matter if somebody does raise the question of authenticity? The
Muslim world accepts these traditional sayings today as true and for
the most part follow their instructions.

A famous tradition says, “There is no monasticism in Islam.” '*
As a matter of fact Islam does not care for asceticism with its
useless mortification of the flesh, its unnecessary deprivations as
well as its continuous fasts and nights spent in prayer. In regard to
marriage, the Islamic tradition asks for no more than an honest and
constructive life in which the individual follows the middle of the
road, remembering God on the one side and respecting, on the
other, the rights and needs of the body, family, and society.

The Prophet said.

The best among you is not the one who for-
gets the life after death in order to enjoy the present,

16 surah 5, Verse 94.
17 Surah 7, Verse 33.

This is laid down in the Quran in the following verse:

Then We caused Our Messengers to follow in their footsteps; and We caused
Jesus, son of Mary, to follow them, and We gave him the Gospel. And We placed
in the hearts of those who accepted him compassion and mercy. But monasticism
which they invented for themselves—We did not prescribe it for them. (Surah 57,
Verse 28).

ISLAMIC MORALE

nor the one who does the contrary; the best among
you is the one who takes from both.

To a too fervent youngster he said:
Your body has its rights and your wife has
her rights and your guest has his rights.

To the one who one day asked his advice about alms, he said:
Give one-third because one-third is already
enough. It is better to leave your descendants
provided for than to compel them to go begging.

Strict celibacy is the subject of severe criticism in Islam and it
is against the customs established by Muhammad. To an Arab who
was following such a celibate life, Muhammad, according to
tradition, spoke this very bitter reproach, “Have you decided to
become a son of Satan? Do you want to be like a Christian monk?
If you do, then stand forth openly and associate yourself with them.
Or are you one of our men? If so, then you have to follow our way.
Our way is the married life.”

The limitations upon the enjoyment of life which Islam has
imposed on its followers are but few, are equal for all, and show
great wisdom. Today when a severe battle is being fought in the
Western world against alcoholism and when the West tries to limit
gambling by means of prohibitions and limitations, can anybody
blame Islam for having banged shut these two “doors of danger”,
these causes of corruption both of the spirit and of wealth? Thrift is
a virtue in the words of the Quran, but this is not enough. We read
in the holy book of prohibition of gambling and of making money
through charging interest on loans. Would you not say that God’s
wisdom shines in this repression of illegal earnings?

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

Men feel the need of a religion, but at the same time they want
it to answer their needs and they want it to be not only close to their.
sentiments but to offer tranquility and security for the other life as
well as for this. Islam answers these prerequisites perfectly, for it is
not only a creed but also a philosophy of life. It teaches right-
thinking, proper acting, and honest speaking, and for these reasons
it finds its way to both the mind and the heart of man without
difficulty. '

CHAPTER V

Islamic Rule and Civilization

We must offer our deepest admiration to a religion which does
not stop with a theory suited to the aspirations of human nature, nor
with establishing a code of the highest rules which man can live by,
but which goes on to inculcate a philosophy of life; which puts the
basic principles of morality on a systematic and positive basis;
which translates the duty of man towards himself and others into
precise rules, which are capable of evolution and are compatible
with the highest intellectual development; and, to crown it all,
which provides a sanction for these laws. The influence of such a
religion upon the lives of men generally, but more particularly upon
those of the ignorant and the uneducated, is both continuous and
healthy, since for them moral precepts have little value unless they
are enunciated with the precision of a law and carry with them well-
defined penalties.

Islam is such a religion. Once human nature's essential need of
being guided more by authority than by sermons and abstract
principles was recognized, Islam spoke to it in terms of a positive
command from an absolute power. This was another cause of its
great success. If Islam succeeded in creating a united and strong
nation based on moral principles in an Arabia where the most

ISLAMIC RULE AND CIVILIZATION

complete anarchy then reigned, where the idea of government as an
independent social institution was completely unknown, where any
form of human authority was considered unbearable, where cruelty
was the rule, and where killing and stealing were not punishable
crimes but only acts which invited reprisals by the family or tribe of
the dead or injured person, this could only be achieved because
Islam was both a law and a religion.

The Sharia, the canon law of Islam, is not confined to ritual.
All aspects of public and private life are subject to its rulings and it
has the purpose of relating every act of the individual with his
religious duties. All branches of the law are represented in it.

The law makers in passing laws with their various moral
implications could not always go back to the Quran, since only a
very few verses of judicial character are to be found there, and even
these speak in very broad terms. Nor could they go to the Sunna
which, although an ample complement to the Book, is yet quite
inadequate to solve the numerous cases to which everyday life gives
rise. As a result, we witness in the Muslim world the establishment
of the principle of the Ijma or the consensus of the opinions of the
Muslims—to be more specific, of the Muslims who were
recognized as being the most educated at any given time. This
consensus of the best opinions is recognized as having binding
authority.

The Prophet said, “My community will never unite on error.”
These points which this group will unanimously recognize as
correct and just ought to be accepted as true and just, and the laws
established on the basis of such an agreement have a compulsory
character.

Ijma, which has been the keystone of the historic evolution of
Islam, will also be the evolutionary power of its development.

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

It allowed laws existing among peoples of other than Arabic origin,
if not in conflict with the law of God, to become part of Islamic
law. It will once again be by means of this factor that Islam, if it
will cast off that kind of stiffness into which the Muslim world
seems to have fallen recently (and promising signs are already seen
on the horizon), will move freely again and adapt itself to the needs
of modern times.

Thanks to Ijma, the Islamic law has accepted, incorporated and
completed laws which were in existence long before the mission of
Muhammad. But since their value is not in question, we shall not
pause here to discuss them, nor shall we discuss those articles of the
Islamic law whose wisdom is taken for granted. We shall turn
instead to see what defence can be offered of those Islamic social
institutions which are especially under criticism and attack by the
non-believers.

The Quran, as we have already mentioned, has established very
few rules in such a precise fashion as to constitute law. In the
majority of cases, it has left to the discretion of its followers the
freedom of conforming to those institutions which would be
appropriate to the time and to the country in which they live.
Wonderful sign of God’s mercy! Definite rules have, however, been
established on marriage, stating that nobody may marry women
with whom there is a certain degree of blood-relationship. To this
no objection is raised by the non-Muslim. The argument begins,
however, and rages very powerfully when we come to the question
of polygamy, which, under certain conditions which we shall
discuss later on, has been permitted by the Quran.

We could begin by stating that it has not yet been proved in
any absolute way that polygamy is necessarily a social evil, an
obstacle on the road to progress, but we prefer not to discuss the
matter on this plane. We could also make the point that in certain
stages of social development, when certain particular conditions

ISLAMIC RULE AND CIVILIZATION

exist—an unusually high number of males killed in war, for
instance—polygamy becomes a social necessity. At any rate, it
should not be judged by the concepts of later ages, because in
Muhammad’s day it was fully accepted and legally recognized not
only among the Arabs but also among other peoples of that region.
As a matter of fact, the Islamic law, which seems today to be so full
of concessions on this subject, actually established for the followers
of Muhammad certain limitations upon polygamy which was in
practice without any limitation. It condemned certain forms of
conditional and temporary marriage which were in effect different
forms of legal concubinage. Furthermore, it gave to the woman
rights she had never known before. All this could easily be
established and documented were it not even more important to
present to the reader another aspect of the question.

The Quran has allowed a man to marry two, three and even
four women. But, at the same time, it has specified a qualifying
condition which is indispensable for such marriages by insisting
upon the husband exercising the most perfect and complete justice
towards each wife, meaning by “justice” not only equal treatment in
material provisions but also equal love: “. . marry but two, or three,
or four; and if you fear that you will not deal justly, then marry only

one. ;

In the same chapter where this rule is laid down, some other
verses make it clear that such a spirit of equality due to human
nature is rare indeed to find in man:

And you cannot keep perfect balance
between wives, however much you may desire it. *

Surah 4, Verse 4.
2 Surah 4, Verse 130.

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

Reasoning from the above we conclude that polygamy, al-
though proved possible, is practically made impossible by the
difficulty of fulfilling the condition which is its prerequisite. God’s
Tule is indeed a prohibition, say both Ez Zahrawi and Ameer Ali.
We cannot argue on behalf of polygamy by merely stating that it is
acceptable to God, nor can we take as evidence the personal life of
the Prophet, which was the result of his personal condition of
exceptional responsibilities. Too many differences exist between
him and other men in the fulfillment of the condition of justice, as
well as in respect of the problems and difficulties with which he
was faced.

Enemies of Islam have insisted in depicting Muhammad as a
sensual individual and a dissolute man, trying to find in his
marriages evidence of a weak character not consistent with his
mission. They refuse to take into consideration the fact that during
those years of his life when by nature the sexual urge is strongest,
although he lived in a society like that of the Arabs, where the
institution of marriage was almost non-existent, where polygamy
was the rule, and where divorce was very easy indeed, he was
married to one woman alone, Khadija, who was much older than
himself, and that for twenty-five years he was her faithful, loving
husband. Only when she died and when he was already fifty years
old did he marry again and more than once. Each of these marriages
had a social or a political reason, for he wanted through the women
he married to honour pious women, or to establish marriage
relations with other clans and tribes for the purpose of opening the
way for the propagation of Islam. With the sole exception of
Ayesha, he married women who were neither virgins. nor young
nor beautiful. Was this sensuality?

He was man and not God, and the desire of a son may also
have brought him to other marriages, for unforunately the ones born
to Khadija had died. Without too many resources, he took upon his
shoulders the heavy burden of maintaining a large family, but

ISLAMIC RULE AND CIVILIZATION

always, in spite of the number of his wives, he observed a perfect
equality towards all of them, nor did he ever use in respect of any
one of them the right of separation. He acted under the sanction of
reversed ancient patriarchs like Moses and others, to whose plural
marriages, nobody seems to take exception. Could this be because
we do not have the particulars of their daily lives, while in the case
of Muhammad we know all about his life within the family?
Unfortunately, men in the past, not listening to the critical second
half of the Quranic verse which invites people to monogamy, have
paid attention only to the first part of it, the one which allows them
to be polygamists, and have taken advantage of the concessions
granted to them, without interpreting, as was necessary the word of
God. Today in the Islamic world, particularly in those countries
which have seen a new flourishing of civilization, new moral
sentiments are gaining ground, and the practice of polygamy,
thanks to various circumstances, has become very restricted.

The Quran permits divorce. Since Western society has also
accepted divorce and in fact has recognized it as a necessity of life
and almost everywhere has given to it full legal sanction, we could
omit any defence of its recognition by Islam. Yet by discussing it
and comparing the habits of the pre-Islamic Arab society and the
Muslim law, we will have the opportunity of showing that the law
of Islam in this respect also inaugurated a social reform.

Prior to the time of Muhammad, divorce had been made very
easy by current practice among the Arabs. It was enough for the
man to say one word alone, to make a single sign, to send his wife
back to her family. It was also enough for the wife (even if this
practice was not too common, nevertheless examples are not
lacking in pre-Islamic society) to turn the entrance flap of the tent
inside out to signify that she had broken the marriage tie. Now the
law of God lays down certain rules which not only permit but in
certain circumstances recommend the cancellation of the divorce.
The husband, after having pronounced the words of separation,

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

reserves for a certain period of time, during which the wife lives by
herself and cannot marry again, the right to take her back without
any formality. It is only at the end of that period of retirement or if
the formality of separation has been pronounced under special
conditions, that the separation becomes definite. The woman has no
right to ask for a divorce, but she may ask for cancellation of her
marriage by applying to the judge, and this if she has a good reason.
The purpose of this limitation on the woman’s initiative is to put a
check on the practice of divorce, for men are supposed to be less
susceptible to decisions on the spur of the moment than women are.
The intervention of the judge is also designed to secure to the
woman all her financial and other rights in working out the
dissolution of the marriage.

This rule, and the other one, which lays down that in case of
disagreement within the family conciliators have to be consulted in
order to promote an agreement, would by itself be evidence that
Islam considers divorce as reprehensible. The following verses of
the Quran state this in a very positive way:

For those who vow abstinence from their
wives, the maximum period of waiting is four
months; then if they go back from the vow, surely,
Allah is Most Forgiving, Merciful.

And if they decide upon divorce, then
surely, Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing. :

Several traditions carry the same idea, for instance:
God hasn’t created anything which he loves

more than the emancipation of man, nothing
which he hates more than divorce.

3 Surah 2, Verses 227-228.
69

ISLAMIC RULE AND CIVILIZATION

In order to avoid incitement towards misconduct and prevent
its consequences, the Muslim woman must carry a veil, and cover
all of her body, leaving uncovered only those parts of her body such
as eyes and feet, the freedom of which is absolutely necessary. This
is done not out of any lack of esteem towards women, nor to
suppress their will, but to protect them from the desire of men. This
centuries-old rule of the secluded life for women and the resulting
moral life had the effect in oriental countries of making
commercialized prostitution entirely unknown, except where
foreigners’ influence was exercised. As no one can deny the value
of such gains we must conclude that the custom of the veil and that
of the non-participation of women in public life, while from a
certain point of view they represent a loss, from another point of
view have been sources of incalculable benefit to Muslim society.

In those countries where education, the necessary prerequisite
to women’s freedom, is not shared by all, there is much to be said
for women’s abstention from public life in spite of modern
ideologies and the spread of western influence. This does not mean
that conditions will continue in the rigid form which they assume at
present in most of the countries of the East. Such a concept would
be contrary to the very spirit of Islam, which is one of continuous
adaptation to the contingencies of different times and peoples.

O Prophet? tell thy wives and thy daughters
and the women of the believers that they should
draw close to them portions of their loose outer
coverings. That is nearer that they may thus be
distinguished and not molested. And Allah is Most
Forgiving, Merciful.

And say to the believing women that they
restrain their eyes and guard their private parts, and

4 Surah 33, Verse 60.
70

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

that they disclose not their natural and artificial
beauty except that which is apparent thereof, and
that they draw their head-coverings over their
bosoms. °

These words of the Quran have to be understood with the just
moderation which is found in the habits of the Prophet who left to
the women of his family a considerable freedom. If this is not
understood, we could not explain the part which many of the
women took in the political and war-like events of the time during
the life and after the death of Muhammad, such as the role of
Ayesha in the fighting against Ali (during the battle known as the
battle of the camel, she urged the soldiers and was exposed to
serious danger), or the role of Fatima Bint Qays al Fihriyyah in the
circumstances leading to the election of Caliph Othman, or many
other events of primitive Islam.

But if, from the social point of view in Europe, woman has
reached a high condition, her position, legally at least, until a very
few years ago, has been and in some countries continues to be, less
independent than that of the Muslim woman in the Islamic world.
The Muslim woman, besides having the right to inherit together
with her brothers, even if in a smaller proportion, of not being given
in marriage without her free consent, and of not being mistreated by
her husband, also possesses the night of receiving a dowry from the
husband, of being supported by him, even if she is wealthy by birth,
and of enjoying the most complete freedom, if she is legally
capable, in the administration of her personal estate.

The institution of slavery which began, we may say, with the
establishment of human society and which has lasted through the
ages and among all peoples right up to our own day, was not

5 Surah 24, Verse 32.
Ae

ISLAMIC RULE AND CIVILIZATION

altogether abolished by divine law, and the non-Muslims have
made a major accusation of this fact.

First of all, the condition of slaves among the Muslims,
whether the Muslims are nomads or settled on land, is far more
tolerable than the Europeans like to believe (testimonials of this can
be found in the word of many a European who visits oriental
countries), and it is unfair to compare slavery in the East with that
existing, for instance, a century ago in the United States of
America. What humane feeling is there in the tradition, “Don’t call
him ‘my slave’ but ‘my youth’; and don’t call your slave girl
‘maid’, but ‘my daughter’.” If we are to consider these facts from
an historical point of view, we shall see, even in this field, the
wonderful work of reform done by the Prophet of God. Not only
did he restrict slavery (While in the pre-Islamic time it was possible
for a free man to lose his freedom for failure to pay his debts, no
Muslim could make a slave of another Muslim.) but rules, both
positive and negative were introduced, and appeals were made to
the believers to go forward and, in due time bring about a gradual
emancipation of all slaves. Certainly, under the beneficial influence
of these admonitions of freeing of the slaves would have been
achieved if slavery had not had such strong tenacious roots in the
habits, not only of the Arab people, but in those of all nations
towards conquered or nearly conquered peoples. Emancipation has
also been prevented by men under the urge of their perversity,
having wrongly interpreted God’s word as an authorization to keep
slavery alive.

In the Quran it is said several times that the freeing of slaves is
the penalty for certain sins. ° And in traditions it is strongly affirmed

: See Surah 4, Verse 93; Surah 5, Verse 90; Surah 24, Verse 34; Surah 58,
Verse 4; Surah 90, Verse 14.

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

that freeing a slave is a deed most acceptable to God. “The one who
frees a slave who believes, shall in the day of resurrection, be freed
from Hell.”

Guided by the spirit of the Quran and by traditions, several
schools of Islamic law established rules which made compulsory or
vigorously promoted the emancipation of slaves. We cannot list all
of these here. We shall only mention two of them which prove how
a slave could, by his own efforts, according to the Muslim law,
raise himself to the condition of a free man, if the owner could not
or would not bear the financial loss which would result from the
emancipation. He could obtain from his master a legal document
binding himself, immediately after becoming a free man, to pay as
soon as possible the agreed compensation to his former master. Or,
he could ask his master to let him earn by his work (and such a
concession is a very worthy one), the necessary amount to pay for
his freedom. The Quran says:

And (those of your slaves) who desire a
deed of manumission in writing, execute it for
them.’

There is also another point. The Muslim state took upon itself
the obligation of helping, with funds coming from legal alms, those
slaves who needed help in purchasing their freedom!

Islam, which has never made any distinction of race or colour
among men, which considered the white and the black, the nomad
and the settled farmer, the ruler and the subject as all alike, not only
in theory but also in practice (and as a matter of fact in the tent, in
the palace, in the mosque, in the market, they all mingled together
without reserve and with no sign of contempt or arrogance towards
each other), never countenanced any humiliating treatment for

7 Surah 24, Verse 34.
73

ISLAMIC RULE AND CIVILIZATION

slaves. Is it not fitting to remember here, while talking of the social
equality imposed by Islam, the beautiful episode of King Jabale,
who, having become a Muslim, went in great state to Mecca. While
he was making the ritual tour around the Ka’ba, he struck a
Bedouin who had accidentally trodden on his rich mantle. The
Caliph Omar ruled that he was to receive a similar blow from the
Bedouin because in Islam all men are alike. Jabale refused to
submit to this and that very night he left with his five hundred
knights and went straight to Byzantium where he became a
Christian. Many years later, in the midst of honours and riches, the
memories of Islam still filled his eyes with tears.

History furnishes many examples of slaves to whom high and
honourable positions were given (among others, Bilal, who because
of his beautiful voice was accorded the high honour of being the
first muezzin in Islam) and of freedmen who occupied high
government positions, even rising to the Caliphate. Here, before we
pass on to another topic, it would be appropriate to remember that
Muhammad strictly forbade all mutilations of slaves, and that the
custom of having the women’s quarters guarded by eunuchs began
only at the time of the Omayyad Caliphs.

In connection with the penal law, it is known that the law of
God did not institute a new penal system. This is because in
Muhammad’s time it was not possible to make great modifications
in this field, and also because it is in the spirit of Islam to leave the
most complete freedom to people in establishing laws which are
suited to their nature and their time. Nevertheless, Islam brought
some improvement in regard to the old law, principally eliminating
the most dangerous consequences of the right of retribution. It
established, in full agreement with progressive laws and
civilization, the principle that the guilty one must be found and
punished, but only in a few cases are any precise rules either
suggested or established. What Muhammad actually did was to
reconfirm punishments already existing prior to Islam in the laws of

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

countries, such as retaliation, mutilation, and lynching. “And there
is life for you in the law of retaliation,” says the Quran. * The fear of
punishment as heavy as the crime itself, it was believed, would
arrest the hand of the man about to commit a crime. If you consider,
from the point of view of crime prevention, the very stiff penalties
for homicide, injuries, lust, calumny, drunkenness, theft and
robbery, you will feel that they are very wise, particularly if they
are coupled with the very frequent Quranic exaltation of pardon as
something agreeable to the Lord, and of moderation in asking the
price of blood or the payment of liabilities. They also have to be
examined in the light of a fundamental principle in Islamic law, that
for disobedience to God, the believer must do everything possible
to avoid inflicting punishment on the sinner; God having based His
relationship with men on pity and kindness. Finally, they must be
regarded in the light of the many requirements which in practice
make very difficult a literal application of all the penalties
established by the Quran.

8 Surah 2, Verse 180.
75

CHAPTER VI

The Significance
of Mysticism in Islam

As time went on, Islam, like other religions, developed a
mystic and contemplative element, either resulting from a natural
inner evolution or from external influences. At the outset, in Islam,
when the observance of the duties of daily life was placed above
religions speculation, this mystical element had no possibility of
developing. The desire of making a direct and immediate approach
to the Creator, of being in contact with Him was the essential basis
of all real devotion. The need, therefore, of an intuitive knowledge
of God is part of faith.

Born from this need of the believer, Islamic mysticism, or as it
is called in technical terminology, Sufism, found its first element in
the deep sentiment of communion with God which the Prophet so
often enjoyed when he spoke to his followers, and in the example of
his deep mercy. It also found in the widespread diffusion of neo-
Platonic theories, a sympathetic field for its evolution. But let us be
precise about this. The idea that the verses of the Quran contained a
deep and hidden meaning over and above the one which first
appeared from the reading, did not develop out of any desire of

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MYSTICISM IN ISLAM

escaping the strictness of the text and of the dogmas, but rather
from the conviction that the words of the divine book meant more
and not less than what the common interpretation had seen in them.

In the oldest statements pertaining to the concepts of the inner
light, there is no support for the theory that the Prophet or the direct
heirs of his spiritual teaching invited men to give up responsible life
in the world in order to cultivate faith and achieve the inner
fulfillment of religious practices. Asceticism and all its
manifestations, as we have already said, were denounced by the
Prophet. Nevertheless, in their longing to reach spiritual perfection,
many Muslims forgot that human existence must be a continuous
struggle, and from early times, either as a reaction to the almost
pagan excess of liberties evolved during the time of the Omayyads,
or as a reaction of disgust at the political events which were against
their pious feelings, or for other causes, these protesters separated
themselves from the world and moved into a kind of life entirely
dedicated to the worshipping of God.

From piety to quietism, the step is short. From quietism to
mysticism, the evolution is natura]. The ancient communion with
God, the intuitive feeling that the Almighty was unreachable in the
midst of the distractions of a mundane life, resulted in a theory of
spiritual development basing itself in Islam, as in other religions, on
the complete abnegation of the individual and upon his absolute
dedication to a contemplative life. Man, finding himself and freeing
himself of material things, must make every effort to react to God’s
beauty and goodness. He must detach himself from the externals of
his personal life, in order to succeed in uniting his spirit with the
divine existence, the only reality. This was a very high purpose, one
which could not fail to attract souls in search of a high degree of
spirituality. It did much good to the Muslims, because while it
impressed on them the idea of the possibility of a spiritual union
with God through long and laborious training, it developed the
feeling of spiritual dignity, and in place of a blind and meticulous

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

obedience it established self-education through ascetic discipline
and saved the soul from capitulating to a materialistic standard.

Unfortunately Sufism, once it was removed from any form of
discipline, soon shaped itself in the minds of many Muslims in
forms quite contrary to the fundamental concepts preached by
Muhammad. As a result, pantheistic ideas, new and strange codes,
and corrupt moral concepts began to emerge. A grave danger
threatened Islam. On the other hand, a danger which we cannot be
sure, may not be even graver than these forms of degeneration
within mysticism was developing, to wit, the rise of dogmatic
theology (unfortunately, the desire of imposing conformity and of
repressing heresy has always been the curse of all religious
systems), made barren by empty discussion of extremely subtle
questions which the mass of people could not understand, except in
terms of the conduct of life. This dogmatic theology ended by
freezing itself into a type of very hard formalism which could no
longer satisfy the religious aspirations of the human soul. What is
even more tragic, the majority of doctors, instead of occupying
themselves with theological questions, dedicated their time to the
study, considered by them to be of paramount importance, of the
divine law in its various practical applications. But, having lost
sight of broad and healthy conceptions, they lost themselves in
miserable discussions of the most fantastic and detailed casuistry.

For Islam’s sake, in this difficult period of its life, a great
genius, a great renovator, Al-Ghazali came to the rescue of this
depressed and abused religion, giving it a new, healthy, fresh and
powerful vitality. His invitation to a mystical life based on the
preservation of the orthodox principles, and remembering the
examples set by the companions of the Prophet, gave a new beauty
to Islam and revived its earlier vitality. He claimed that the
development of the religious life understood as the Sufis did, must
be founded on the practical precepts of Islam, while “the door”
which would admit us into it would be a knowledge of the law,

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MYSTICISM IN ISLAM

which must always be the starting point of the mystical ascent and
of intuitive knowledge of God. The ideas of AI-Ghazali as accepted
by the Jjma became the corner-stone on which Islam founded the
final construction of its ideas and its religious aspects, ridding itself
of the degeneration into which it had been led by the unrestrained
impetuousness of the most extreme mystics. Religion saw its
horizon broadened, and returned to purity and continuity of thought
and sentiment, and it became an experience of deep inner origin in
which love for God was the central point. In this way it influenced
the life of the Muslims in the most noble and intimate fashion.

The intensive part of the mystical philosophy established itself
in the monasteries of the various brotherhoods. The Zavies, Ribats,
and the Khankahs sprang up in many parts of the Muslim world.
Wherever a saint, a marabout, Wali, Pir or Sidi, or whatever the
different countries chose to name him, made his home and raised
his voice and told of his direct visions of God, disciples grouped
around him, and here religious orders were founded and mystic
teaching was given.

But as only very few men can be truly called saints, we always
find closely associated with the sincere and honest ones a large
number of pseudo-saints, the cheaters who trade on the gullibility of
the people, as well as a certain collection of the ignorant and the
fools, whose minds have been upset by mystical practices. While
the teaching of the real saints is beneficial, the influence of the
pseudo-saints is very deplorable. But how are we to recognize the
good and true ones? The quietism of the Sufi was also a danger for
the social life, because, in its extreme manifestations, it generated a
spirit of passive reliance on God and in His Providence and thus
encouraged an unwillingness on the part of the devout person to
provide for his daily needs himself. Therefore, without doubt, there
must be charged to Sufism a partial responsibility for the present-
day decline of the Muslim nations. But, on the other hand, can we
deny the great benefit which came to Islam from the work of these

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

brotherhoods? These sources of religious life kept the. spirit alive
throughout all the Muslim lands right out to the extreme boundaries
and were like so many oases scattered in the vastness of the desert.

It is, however, unfair on the part of non-Muslims to judge the
very essence of the Islamic religion by certain external regulations
of mystical codes. For these are regarded quite as critically by most
educated and intelligent Muslims.

Mohammad Ferid Wagdi writes:

Europeans must be forgiven if they believe
all calumnies against Islam and against the Muslims
and they are right if they show hostility toward our
religion, as long as they have in front of their eyes
nothing else than showings of “novelties” created by
men of poor judgment, accepted and increased by
the population with other forms which are suspected
of heresies and errors and which are contrary to
human nature and the laws of civilization. How can
we hope that Europeans will understand the very
essence of our religion, which is the only one which
will carry all happiness, as long as they only know
certain external features of Islam which they witness
every day like the noisy crowds in streets going after
flags and drums; the very objectionable ceremonies
that are contrary to all moral reasonings which take
place in all the cities of Egypt upon the birthday of
the Prophet; the reunions in large circles in front of
a public of thousands of people; the mystic litany
yelled in a powerful voice with the accompaniment
of bowing to the right and left; and similar things?

The learned oriental has two duties: first to
make known to all the world that the Islamic reli-
gion, besides being free from many of the errors

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MYSTICISM IN ISLAM

which writers generally attribute to it, and from that
form of cult which the mass wants to give it, in the
presence of spectators, is in reality the code of true
happiness, that it is the angel of real civilization and
consequently that everybody owes respect and love
to it, like that given it by the great philosophers who
started it and believed in it; the second duty which
rests with the educated Muslim is to make an effort
to do away with the heresies which drag down the
Islamic world and represent a dark spot on the
Orient, a cause of derision for everyone who has a
scrap of judgment.

CHAPTER VII

Islam and its Relation to
Science

Rational speculation is, as Muhammad Abduh states, the
foundation of Islam. As we have seen, in order to awaken in man
faith in One God, it does not use miracles, but the ordinary faculty
of human reason. Later on, when, in order to awaken belief in the
Prophets and in the divine revelations, Islam presents that great
miracle known as the Quran (which is in itself both an
understandable science and the intelligible word of God) it does not
expect that man should accept Islam with passive faith, without the
active application of his intelligence. Rather, it invites him to
understand it to meditate upon it up to the limit which human
intelligence and reason permit, and it challenges him to find a way
to deny its superiority by finding a work which could be its equal.

The importance which is assigned to reason in Islam is such
that for the majority of Muslims (I refer here always to the thought
of Muhammad Abduh) when there is an irreconcilable conflict
between an alleged tradition and reason, the latter must prevail and

! Surah 2, Verse 24.
83

ISLAM AND ITS RELATION TO SCIENCE

the tradition must be rejected as spurious. As a matter of fact, there
are only two paths to follow: either we admit that the way tradition
dictates is unintelligible, or we must interpret it in consonance with
reason. For believers to accept all the mass of tradition just as it is,
some of it verging upon absurdity, is not expected or required in
Islam.

Now a religion which has as its basis rational speculation, and
which gives such a broad scope to reason, a religion that orders the
use of all the faculties bestowed upon man by God and
consequently also the one which is the greatest of all, namely, his
intelligence—how could such a religion be an obstacle in the way
of science and philosophy? |

It has been said that modern civilization has achieved such a
happy development in Europe because Christianity has separated
the civil power from the religious one, as well as because the
present-day Western states are free from Church influence, which
through centuries was exercised on them, while in Islamic countries
such separation cannot be effected because the civil power is
connected by law with the religious one.

Now Islam is in the fullest sense a religion and a state. In
addition to having revealed God to man, it also establishes rights
and duties and recognizes that authority is needed to have these
observed. But the Caliph is not, for the Muslim, a religious head.
He is not infallible. He does not claim God’s inspiration and does
not pretend to be able to explain the Quran and the tradition as a
binding authority. In order to administer justice, he must be able to
understand enough of the Sources so that he will be able to see the
difference between truth and falsehood, but he is like all other
Muslims in his understanding of the sacred book. He will be obeyed
as long as he keeps within the proper limits.

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

If he should overstep them, his subjects would have the right to call
him back to his duty, to admonish him, and, if he should not pay
attention to their word, to elect a new Caliph in his place. A famous
tradition says, “In the case of rebellion towards the Creator, no
obedience is due by man.”

The Caliph is, consequently, from all points of view, a civilian
arbitrator and is not a theocrat who receives his power from God
and who has the right to be obeyed by his subjects as a necessary
consequence of their belief. In Islam there is only one religious
power, if we can so designate a power which consists in the
strength granted by God to all Muslims, from the humblest to the
noblest, of encouraging the believers to follow the good road and to
keep away from evil. The quadi, the mufti, the shaikh-ul-Islam have
only civil power, because none of them could impose his authority
contrary to the faith of one of his brothers.

How can we say that Islam hampered the development of
culture in the past centuries, when the courts and schools of Islam
were lighthouses of culture for a Europe which was at that time in
the midst of the darkness of the Middle Ages; when the thoughts of
Arab philosophers reached such heights that they led the way for
Western scholars; when Harun-er-Rashid required a school for the
study of various sciences to be attached to each mosque; and when
libraries rich in hundreds of thousands of books were opened to
scholars all over the Islamic world? Were not the Arabs the first
who applied experimental methods, long before Bacon proclaimed
their necessity? The development of chemistry, of astronomy, the
propagation of Greek science, the promotion of the study of
medicine and the discovery of various physical laws—are not these
to the credit of the Arabs?

If this is so, then we cannot say that it is in the nature of their
religion to create obstacles in the way of the progress of science.
Let us say instead that at times statesmanship was compelled, in

ISLAM AND ITS RELATION TO SCIENCE

order to preserve peace in certain territories, to repress currents of
thought which could become dangerous to the public order, that
political and sometimes personal struggles, rather than religious
causes, have in the past determined the attitudes of theologians,
lawmakers, traditionists and philosophers. We must, however,
recognize that today in certain Muslim environments there are
strong objections to rational science and to modern industry.
Afghans, Persians and Indians remain strongly bound to their old
traditions. The people from the Maghrib are filled with exaggerated
fanaticisms. There are still jurists who are so attached to the literal
expressions of those books which they regard as fundamental that
they refuse to express an opinion when a new case appears for
which no clue is to be found in these old books. Or they try to keep
the case in abeyance until they succeed in agreeing on a well-
accepted opinion of one of their preferred authors. But it is not fair
to accuse the spirit of Islam of rigidity and immobility, simply
because of certain local situations that are to be found in particular
historical conditions today or because of the over-rigid mentality of
certain Muslim groups.

Unfortunately the Islamic religion, after having been an Arab
treasure and having Arabized Greek science, fell into the hands of
Turks, Tartan, and Mongols. These after having been employed by
the Arabs as mercenaries and having come only to make money,
took over the Islamic world, adopted the religion of the conquered,
clothing themselves in its mantle without understanding its inner
spirit or having their hearts educated by it. This incapacitated them
from ever really entering into the genius of Islam. These barbarians
are responsible for having tried to put to sleep the minds of their
subjects, for making them lose their interest in science so that they
could more easily be dominated. The new powers assumed for
themselves, and themselves alone, the duty of deciding all affairs of
the Muslim community, using the concept of divine predestination
as a means of forbidding their subjects from thinking and for the
purpose of establishing themselves on a solid basis for defending

AN INTERPRETATION OF ISLAM

the idea that henceforth the doors of God’s favours were closed to
all newcomers. (How could that be as in the Quran, God reproaches
this very sin in the followers of other religions.) 7

In this way the faithful were forbidden to judge and forced to
follow the opinions of their predecessors. It is these interlopers
who, in a word, falsified the character of the religion they had
embraced and followed its outer practices without understanding or
being willing to understand its deeper spirit. This is how we
account for the building up of that “rigidity” in Islam which has had
such dangerous consequences, not only in religion or in law or in
traditional literary and philosophical studies, but also in various
manifestations of social life.

We do not believe it necessary to document this with further
evidence. Fortunately this rigidity is a disease bound to disappear;
as a matter of fact it already appears to be passing away. It is to the
holy book which has never been altered at the hands either of its
friends or its enemies, by either the learned or the unlettered, the
book that time does not wear out but which remains just as it was
revealed by God to the rough and simple Apostle, the last of all
law-bearing Prophets—it is to this pure source that Muslims will
return. As they drink directly from this holy book, they will not fail
to be re-invigorated. There is strong evidence that this process has
already begun.

2 Surah 2, Verse 166.
87

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“An Interpretation of Islam should be widely read. It will prove of

_ the utmost value in promoting friendly understanding between the

_ Muslims and the West, and thus strengthening international peace.

_ Islam is universal in its appeal. The values taught by Islam will be
joyfully acclaimed in the West, once they are properly understood.
Professor Vaglier''s work will be welcomed as one of the great @
pioneers in opening the way towards that consummation.” |

Foreword by. Sir Muhammad Zafrulla Khan. Judge of the International Court of Ju&

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